SURVIVAL LAND AND
Not for Sale
SEA
Prepared for The United States Navy
by the
Ethnogeographic Board } \\ 1 \ - C
and the Staff of The Smithsonian Institution
with contributions by the Bureau of Aeronautics
and Bureau of Medicine and Surgery^ . -
United States Navy
Publications Branch
Office of Naval Intelligence • United States Navy
1944
CH/MA
MARIANA JS,
PU/L/PP/NE /$.
'MINDANAO
NALMAHtfM I
OUTLINE MAP OF THE SOUTH PACIFIC
CONTENTS
Sections Page
I Introduction 1
II “Men Against the Sea” 3
Abandoning ship 3
Procedure in rescue craft 6
Exposure at sea 7
Drinking water at sea 9
Food at sea 10
Fishing 10
Making your own fishing kit 11
Making fish line 12
Making a grapple hook 12
Making fishhooks 13
Sharks „ 17
Navigation without instruments 17
Wind and currents __ 18
Direction at sea 20
The sun . 20
Stars .... 22
Planets .. 22
Constellations. 23
Belt of Orion 24
The Dipper 25
Polaris— The North Star 25
Southern Cross. 28
Orientation ... 30
£
IX CONTENTS
Sections Page
III Landfall and Island Survival 31
Protection from the sun 32
Quenching thirst 32
The coconut 36
Island sea food 40
Hints on spearing and preparing fish.. 47
Fish with poisonous flesh 48
Fish with venomous or poisonous spines. 49 Handling dangerous fish_„ 52
IV Natives . 53
V Tropical Forests 58
Water. 59
Getting out of the woods 61
Firemaking 65
Forest dangers 71
Snakes and crocodiles 75
Bloodworms _ 77
VI Food in the Tropics ... 79
Animals, birds, etc 79
Food plants 83
Plants along seashores 84
Clearings and abandoned fields 93
Open grassland, thin woods, and
thickets.... ... 105
River and stream margins 105
Swamps 108
Forests and jungles 112
Particular regions 116
Poisonous plants 119
Polluted plant foods ... 130
CONTENT, S
III
Sections Page
VII The Arctic. _____________ 132
Signal fire 133
Emergency firemaking. 136
Shelter. 138
Carbon monoxide poisoning 139
Cooking .... _ 140
Water 141
Food 141
On the seashore 142
Fish 144
Land animals 145
Sea animals 147
Birds.. 148
Plant Foods 149
Greens. 155
Boots. 157
Edible fungi and lichens .... 164
Arctic ailments. 164
VIII The Deserts. 169
Water. . 170
Food___ ______ 171
Dust 172
Clothes 172
How to travel, 173
Signals 173
Desert ailments ; 174
IX The United States _ _ _ _ _ 175
SURVIVAL O'N LAND AND SEA
l
INTRODUCTION
Since this war began thousands of men whose ships have been sunk or whose planes have come down in uncivilized areas of the world have made their way back to friendly territory. This booklet, which was written by men who have actually lived in jungles, deserts, and in arctic regions, tells the main things that a man should know about living in wild countries. Read this book. It may save your life. Keep it in your pocket when you are in a part of the world where you may need it. With it you may be able to help not only yourself but whoever may be with you.
The greatest obstacle that will confront you in the wilderness or at sea is fear of the unknown. As you meet and solve each problem you will find that it was not half so bad as you thought it was going to be and that after all you are doing pretty well. Just remember that many men, and women too, have already undergone such experiences and have come through. What they did, you too can do.
First stop and think things over. Size up the situation arid plan your course of action. If you are adrift at sea you cannot hurry and there should be the emergency kit and set of instruc-
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SURVIVAL* ON LAND AND SEA
tions in the boat or raft to help yon. On land, however, there will be the temptation to rush off immediately in some direction, any direction, and attempt everything at once, thus using up valuable energy and adding to your own confusion. If you are cast ashore on a beach— actually the best place to be — the problem, perhaps, will not seem so pressing as when you are lost in the interior, especially if it is bush or jungle country where it is difficult to see very far. On the other hand, if you are stranded on the desert, the fact that you can see so far and so little may make you want to start out at once in an effort to cover as much ground as possible in a short time. Regardless of the nature of the location in which you find yourself, take time to consider your plight and the best ways to go about im- proving it. In the following pages are numerous hints and suggestions on how to accomplish this.
II
“MEN AGAINST THE SEA”
Survival at sea depends on three things, knowledge, equip- ment, and drill. With luck you may get along without one or the other of these, but the going will he tougher and the chances of telling your grandchildren about it not so good. The time to know all about emergency equipment — where it is and how to use it — is before you have to abandon ship, not after. Think as well as act while you go through “Abandon Ship” drill. Should the real thing come your chances will be 100 percent better !
ABANDONING SHIP
The most important factor in survival at sea is being pre- pared when the order to abandon ship comes, or if all communi- cations have been broken down, when your judgment tells you you must leave. To be prepared, first, always have a sheath knife on a lanyard in your belt, a police whistle around your neck, and a light pair of leather gloves in your hip pocket. Second, have a small knapsack or kit bag, with shoulder straps, prepared so that you can take it to your battle station. This should contain a filled canteen, a flashlight with a transparent rubber sheath tied over it (you can buy such a rubber sheath in a drug store in the States), a blanket, sweater, sbirt, and socks fthe latter also in a waterproof wrapper), first-aid packet, and
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SURVIVAL, ON LAND AND SEA
dark glasses. If you get away with the first of these items on your person, it may save your life. If you have your emergency kit bag it may save other lives as well. Experience in the Pacific has indicated the desirability of men wearing their shoes when they abandon ship. Shoes are a great disadvantage when swim- ming without life jackets but their lack is painfully felt once you are ashore in a wilderness. This is also true if you are rescued by a naval vessel in a tropical area. The deck plates be- come so heated by the sun’s rays that a man cannot walk on them with bare feet.
In abandoning ship wait until the ship comes to a stop; try to get away in a lifeboat, and jump only when it is impossible to go down a hose, line, cargo net, or ladder. Remember to put on your gloves and go down hand-over-hand. Don’t slide and burn your hands ! You’ll need them later. If it is necessary to jump get rid of your helmet, fold your arms tight across your life jacket, and, selecting a clear area below, jump with legs ex- tended and feet together.
If you have a cork life jacket, throw it over first and jump after it. Don’t wear it when you jump or it may knock you out. If you have a pneumatic rubber jacket and are a good swimmer, jump in before you inflate it and swim as far away from the ship as seems safe before you do. If you are wearing a kapok life jacket, be sure the lower drawstring is drawn tight and tied securely before you jump.
If you have to go overboard without lowering a boat or raft (in anything but a fiat calm) go over the weather or windward side. The reason for not going over the lee side is that any wind will drive a drifting ship down on you. Take care not to be washed back aboard if a sea is running. To avoid this leave
MEN AGAINST THE SEA
5
the ship by the bow or stern, whichever is lower in the water. If the propellers are still turning, leave by the how. Swim hard to get away from the ship and around the how or stern. When beyond concentrated oil or other dangers, relax and swim or paddle slowly toward the nearest floating object or mass of survivors. It is well to figure out where you want to go in a general way before you go into the water because you can see much more from the deck than you can when you are swimming.
If fuel oil has been discharged, avoid it as much as you can by keeping head and eyes high and your mouth closed. Swallow- ing oil will make you sick and if it gets in your eyes will inflame them for a few days. However, serious effects have seldom resulted from contact with oil in the sea. Wounds which have come in contact with fuel oil have shown no delay in healing.
Should you have* to jump from the ship into burning oil, you may, if you are a good swimmer, avoid being burned by the following procedure. It has been tested and proved successful. Jump feet first through the flames. Swim as long as you can under water, then spring above the flames and breathe, taking a breast stroke to push the flames away; then sink and swim under the water again. Men have been able to get through 200 yards of burning oil in this way. To do it, however, you will have to remove your life belt and other cumbersome clothing.
Obviously a seagoing man should take every opportunity to learn to swim . However, not losing your head is apt to be as important as knowing how to swim. Your life jacket will float you and all your clothes. Many men have been drowned through losing their heads and thrashing about in the water. Do not exhaust your strength by shouting or swimming about uselessly.
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SURVIVAL, OH LAND AND SEA
Swim or paddle slowly toward a lifeboat, raft, or any floating object that will support you. The danger of injury from under - water explosion is lessened by swimming or floating on your back. When you reach a raft, if depth bombing is going on, sit or stand up on it ; do not lie prone upon it.
PROCEDURE IN RESCUE CRAFT
Half the battle is won when you get safely aboard your rescue craft, whether it be a raft or lifeboat. Despite lurid newspaper accounts of exceptional cases, actual statistics show that of boats adrift for more than 24 hours nearly half have reached safety within 5 days. It is the exception for any lifeboat not to be picked up within 3 weeks. If you have foresight, knowl- edge, and initiative your chances are excellent. From now on, the way you act will affect not only your own physical com- fort and chances of survival but those of your companions as well.
Do not exhaust yourself by getting excited. Do not sing or shout for it uses up strength and valuable moisture. If a mass of men are around a raft, hang on but don't try to climb on it. Help get the wounded on. No matter how close-packed or un- comfortable you m'ay be, do your best to be cheerful and, if you can’t, be quiet. Make the best of it, for your survival depends on everyone carrying out routine cheerfully and promptly. It is highly important that everyone aboard a boat or raft should be allocated some job, however small. Only the badly wounded or very exhausted should he excused. Watches should be set on a definite routine.
MEN AGAINST THE SEA
7
Exposure at Sea
As soon as possible, if you are in. a raft or boat, squeeze out all your wet clothing but do not take off all your clothes unless the weather is warm and dry, and the wind moderate. Undress and dry your clothes layer by layer. Pay special attention to your feet. If you have on boots and socks remove and dry them. If possible, put on dry socks. Carrying a pair of dry socks in waterproof wrappings while at sea would here yield big dividends. Your feet should be kept dry and covered if possible. If your rescue craft is wet, keep your shoes on, but if you notice your feet swelling remove your shoes.
To protect yourself against cold winds, rain, spray, or, in the tropics, the sun, put up canvas or other screens, or rig up an awning with whatever is available. Do not take off too many clothes. They protect you against sunburn, which may occur even in cloudy weather. The experiences of men who have lived for weeks on rafts, to be rescued eventually, indicates that, for the tropics, systematically building up a resistance to sun- shine in advance of any emergency will lessen the hardships of exposure. Learning how to swim is a good way to do this and, as previously mentioned, is also a good form of life insur- ance. An all-over coat of tan is a great help, but clothing is essential against glare of the sun by day and cold by night. You can protect your eyes against the glare of the sun on the water by improvising some kind of eye shade or goggles with slits. A cloth tied over your nose will hide the horizon when you look straight forward, and this cuts off some of the glare. Wearing a shirt or vest, and some form of head gear, oc- casionally soaked in sea water, will help against the sum
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SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
Sitting for long periods with wet feet tends to result in pain or numbness of the feet, followed by swelling and later by the formation of blisters or ulcers (“immersion foot”). To prevent this the following precautions have been found helpful: (1) Keep the craft bailed out and as dry as possible. (2) Keep your feet as dry as you can. (3) Loosen your shoe laces, remove garters, and avoid all constriction of clothing which would interfere in any way with circulation of blood from the legs. (4) Exercise your toes, move frequently, place the feet for a time at the level of the hips, lie on your back and hold your feet in the air for a few minutes at a time. If your feet and legs become numb and swollen, do not apply massage or heat but keep them elevated and as dry as possible. Remove your shoes if the swelling is at all severe.
As a result of the very limited ration of food and water, your stools will tend to become hard and dry and the urine scanty and concentrated. Though every encouragement should be given the bowels to move, constipation is to be expected. The experience of most shipwreck survivors is that few diffi- culties result from it later on. As the urine becomes more concentrated it may tend to burn as if is passed. It may be found wise under these circumstances to empty the bladder only once or twice a day as the burning will probably last no longer after passing a large quantity of urine than after passing a small quantity.
Remember that alcohol has no thirst-quenching value and is dangerous to drink under these circumstances. Heavy smokers find tobacco soothing, particularly during the long night watches, but it has no other virtue and increases thirst.
MEN AGAINST THE SEA
Drinking Water at Sea
Drinkable water will be your most essential need. If your emergency craft is equipped with a still or chemical apparatus for removing salt from sea water, learn in advance how to as- semble and operate it. There will probably be some water in the craft, and you should rig gear to catch rain water. Use the sea anchor, boat or sail cover, or any piece of canvas. Try to estimate how long you may be adrift apd ration your water accordingly. A man needs about a pint a day to keep fit, but he can survive on two to eight ounces. A man in good health can live from 8 to 12 days without water. Water will go farther if you hold it in your mouth a long time — rinse, gargle, and swallow. If you have no water, do not eat, since digestion uses up body moisture.
Preserving the water already in the body is almost as impor- tant as having water to drink. To avoid excessive perspiration, refrain from unnecessary exertion. If it is warm, remove (but do not discard) all clothing except headgear, shirt, trousers, and socks, which are necessary to prevent sunburn. Rig an awning which will protect you from the sun but which will not interrupt any breeze. Keep your clothing wet with sea water, so that the evaporation will cool the body, but discontinue this if you feel chilly. Rinse clothing in the sea at least once a day to prevent accumulation of salt. Dry it in the late afternoon to prevent over-cooling at night. In cool weather keep your clothing dry.
In the Arctic and Antarctic, pools of water from ice melted in the sun and ice on floes over a year old are drinkable if not made brackish by salt water spray. (For more details on this, see section on water in The Arctic.) Your water ration should
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SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
be based on careful estimates of your chances of being picked up and the probability of catching rain water.
Do not drink sea water. It will increase your thirst and make you violently sick. However, you can obtain some relief by moistening the lips and rinsing out the mouth with sea w’ater, also by soaking sea biscuits in small quantities of it. But remember that sea water taken into the body in any fashion in larger quantities is very dangerous. Do not drink urine. It contains poisonous \^aste products that will greatly increase your thirst.
Food at Sea
Food is not as important as water. A man with water can survive several weeks without food. However, the more food you have, the better are your chances. So check up on your emergency rations in advance and learn how best to divide and use them. Issue food and water at regular intervals. If you don’t have a watch to gauge the time, issue the rations at sunrise, noon, and sunset. A strict watch should be kept over food and water at all times. A trustworthy man should be delegated to take charge of the preservation and rationing of food and water.
FISHING
If fish can be caught they will provide you with both food and water. Be sure your can of fishing gear is in the raft. It has full instructions, but some of these will bear repetition. If you can catch fish, you will not die of hunger or thirst. The flesh of fish caught in the open sea is good to eat, cooked or raw. It is healthy and nourishing. Many tribes and some nations commonly eat fish raw and like it.
MEN AGAINST THE SEA
11
If and when yon have caught more fish than yon can eat, chew out the juice from the flesh. To do this, put a piece of fish in your mouth. Chew it small. Suck out the juice and swallow it, and then spit out the pulp that is left. Keep it up as long as you are thirsty and have fish.
Fish juice tastes much like the juice of raw oysters or clams. It has been tested and found safe. A suggested method for squeezing out juice is to take a piece of the flesh without bones or skin. Cut it up fine. Wrap it in some kind of cloth, leaving long ends, and let two men twist the ends hard. Some juice will drip out. This has been tried with varying success under different conditions and is not wholly dependable, but since you will have plenty of time it will do no harm to experiment.
MAKING YOUR OWN FISHING KIT
In case you find that your lifeboat or raft does not have a fishing kit or if by chance you lose it through accident, you probably will be able to fashion equipment that will be service- able out of materials that you have at hand. Have everyone empty his pockets and contribute whatever he may have in the way of stickpins, safety pins, campaign bars, collar and other insignia to a pool where it may be inspected for useful articles. Include moisture-proof tobacco pouches, cigarette lighters, nail files, bobby-pins, etc. Anything that may not be of immediate use should be returned to the owners, subject to future call should the need arise.
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SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
Making Fish, Line
Take a square of canvas and cut carefully with a sharp knife along the weave of the fabric so that strands about a yard long can be drawn. When 8 or 10 have been obtained, fasten them at one end or have someone hold them. Then, taking an equal number of strands in each hand, grasp them between the thumb and forefinger of each hand and roll or twist each strand clock- wise, at the same time passing those held in the right hand counterclockwise around those held in the left. It is important that each strand be twisted tightly and the two wound firmly to- gether, so that the completed line will not unravel. This will form a small line with a breaking point well over 100 pounds. When about 18 inches of line have been made, cut off the strands at intervals of about 2 inches so that each will be progressively longer. This will facilitate splicing. About an inch before the ends of the strand are reached, while twisting the line, feed in a new strand to take the place of the one just ended. Continue the operation until 50 or more feet of line have been made. This line is good for heavy work with grapple hooks, but one of two or four strands is better for use as a general fishline on small hooks. The small line will have a breaking point of about 20 pounds. Unraveled rope or the ravelings from a trouser leg may be used if you have no canvas.
Making a Grapple Hook
With a strong knife or other tool, split off four heavy splinters B" or more long from the benches, or portions of your raft, care being taken not to weaken any one seat too much,
MEN AGAINST THE SEA
IS
as they act as braces or struts between the beams or gunwales, or try to salvage a piece of floating wood for the purpose. Take the heaviest piece and cut three notches near its end. These notches are to seat the three remaining pieces. These should be lashed firmly in position forming an angle of about 45 de- grees with the long line of the shaft. (Fig. 1, upper left.) The completed line can be fastened tightly to the shaft by cutting three or four notches near the end of the shaft and lashing the line to it with threads from the canvas. The grapple thus made is then ready for use and may be cast astern. The line, of course, should be held firmly or be made fast to the boat or raft. After you have rowed or drifted some distance pull in the grapple. You may find that all you have caught is a clump of seaweed. If so, don’t be disappointed. Carefully lift the seaweed into the boat or onto the raft and shake it. Usually small fish and crabs will fall out. They may be eaten and will also make good bait. Even the thick, fleshy weeds floating in the sea may be chewed and some moisture and nourishment obtained from them. Whether you have to fashion your own fishing kit or have one, don’t overlook the possibilities of seaweed and the small forms of sea life that can be obtained from it.
Making Fishhooks
Very efficient fishhooks can be made from wood, preferably hardwood. First shape the shaft and cut a notch near the end in which to seat the point. Shape the point and sharpen it so that the hardest part of the grain will form the extreme tip as well as the barb. Seat the point in the notch on the 570603° — 44
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SURVIVAL, ON LAND AND SEA
shaft. This section should form an angle of about 30 degrees with the long axis of the shaft and should be firmly lashed in position, using single strands from the canvas, to prevent slipping. A good point also can be made by using a nail from’ the rubber heel of your shoe. Drive it through the shaft at the desired angle, and lash to prevent splitting of the wood. As in the case of the heavy line on the grapple, make the smaller line fast to the end of the shaft of the hook with single ravelings for binding. Very efficient substitutes for the barbed or bearded fishhooks may be made of wood by using a latch barb. (Fig. 1, lower left and right. ) Excellent hooks may be fashioned from pins of all kinds. A safety pin may be used, or a bobby pin may be hammered to a flat point and cut diagonally using a knife blade as a cold chisel, and then shaped into a hook. A pin from a campaign bar, marksman bar, collar insignia, or other military insignia may be used. A pocket knife concealed with a split fish may boat a large sea bass. In making a hook from a knife be sure to block the blade about a quarter open with a small piece of wood (Fig. 1, upper right), lashing both firmly in place so the blade won’t open fully when the fish takes it.
Lures are often more successful than live bait and should be tried frequently. If gamefish are in the neighborhood they will take lures without hesitation. Lures can be made from clothing or such trinkets as are at hand. (Fig. 1, lower center. )
When a fish having strong spines in the vertical fins has been taken these spines should be saved as very good hooks; use- ful needles, and excellent gigs can also be made with them. By cutting away the muscles at the base of the fin and slipping the spine backward it can be detached from the base of the
men- against the sea
15
Figur® 1.— “Fish books and lures.
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SURVIVAL, OK LAKD AKI) SEA
fin ray thus leaving a perfect “eye” for the accommodation of thread.
A light at night will often attract fish. Flying fish are edible and may be netted. If a piece of cloth is held over the boat and light is thrown on it flying fish often jump toward it and will land in the boat. Shark flesh may be eaten, although it may taste somewhat oily. It is safe to eat flesh of fish and of birds which has a phosphorescent glow. Extra fish can be cleaned and dried so they will last several days. If large, cut them into small thin strips, wash with salt water and hang up the strips to dry. Some kinds of fish are poisonous or venomous. For information on them see the discussion of fishing under “Is- land Survival.”
All birds are good to eat. There are numerous cases of men in lifeboats and on rafts catching birds, so if any come near make every effort to catch them. Some kinds can be caught on a b'aited hook and line. Their blood is both nourishing and thirst quenching. The intestines make good bait, and bird skins and feathers may be used for improvised hats or garments. Turtles are also good to eat and their blood is suitable for drinking. Eels are edible, but certain types resemble sea snakes which are found in the tropical parts of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Sea snakes do not attack swimmers but are poisonous, and should be left alone. Their flesh is edible but you might be bitten trying to land one. They are easily distinguished from eels because they have bony plates or scales covering their heads and bodies and have compressed flattened tails, while eels do not. In swimming, eels glide easily through the water, while sea snakes tend to wriggle as snakes do on land. Most sea snakes, however, stay close to the coast in shallow
MEN AGAINST THE SEA
17
waters, especially near river mouths, and are not likely to be found far from land.
SHARKS
Several species of shark have been known to attack a swim- ming man. Your chances of encountering one of these are not great. Care, however, should be taken to avoid unnecessary risks such as trailing hands or feet from the side of a boat or raft, or going into the water when sharks are near. Sharks sometimes rub against lifeboats or rafts. This is done to scratch off sea lice rather than as an attempt to overturn the boat. The nose is their most sensitive spot and a blow here may drive them away. Kicking, slapping the water, and shout- ing may also have the same effect. Shark repellents should be used if available. Shark yarns are usually exaggerated, but there are enough authentic records of shark attacks to justify all precautions. Whales are practically never dangerous to men. If their proximity becomes uncomfortable two pieces of metal struck together under water may drive them away. Splashing or beating on the surface of the water, however, is likely to attract them.
NAVIGATION WITHOUT INSTRUMENTS
Navigation in a rubber life raft is of necessity most elemen- tary. As a survival factor its role is generally a minor one. Fine distinctions as to courses, bearings, speeds, etc., have little value due to the extremely limited maneuverability of a raft. However, a general knowledge as to one’s approximate where- abouts is surely a matter of interest in any case and under
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SURVIVAL GN LAND AND SEA
certain circumstances can be of tremendous importance to sur- vivors.
Prior to abandoning surface ships, a slip giving course and distance to the nearest land is supplied to each boat officer. In case of a plane crash or forced landing, occupants of each raft (if there is more than one) should be given the same in- formation-—if only in approximate terms. This is the respon- sibility of the navigator, first or second pilot, or of whoever may have the information.
Wind and Currents
For the greatest part, the movement of a raft will be governed by prevailing winds and currents. These, of course, cannot be altered by survivors. However, they sometimes can be intelli- gently utilized if the survivor knows the direction he desires to go.
Wind and current do not necessarily move in the same direc- tion in a given area. One may be favorable, the other unfavor- able.
The lower the raft rides in the water and the lower its oc- cupants remain, the greater will be the effect of current. This effect can be increased by the use of a sea anchor or drag if the current is setting toward land or toward an area in which your patrols are operating.
On the other hand, if the wind should be favorable, the raft should be lightened as much as practical. Survivors should sit erect to offer wind resistance. Any sort of makeshift sail would be of help.
MEN against the sea
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To use wind or current advantageously, two things are re- quired :
(a) Knowledge of the direction you wish to go.
(b) Knowledge of the direction of wind and current.
Certain types of life rafts are now being equipped with charts
printed on water-resistant paper. They show the direction of prevailing winds and currents at different periods of the year as well as land and water areas. To use them it will be necessary to have a general idea of your position at the time you hit the water. In the case of aircraft, as has been said, it is the respon- sibility of the officers to give out this information in the event of a forced landing. But just in case they might be unlucky in the landing it is a good idea to carry a rough — necessarily very rough — log of over-water flights in your mind, whatever your duty in a plane crew may be.
For example, suppose you were en route from Pearl Harbor to San Francisco. If your departure time was 1500 one day and you expected to reach the mainland about 1000 the next, but were forced down about daybreak, which would be the best way to head? You should be closer to the mainland, and even if there were no one to tell you exactly where you were, it would be easy to figure that your best bet would be to work over toward the east wdiere there would be plenty of land.
The wind and current map may not have reached your outfit on the date you need it most. Or the plane captain may have it stuck in his bunk instead of the raft you find yourself in. Therefore, form the habit of studying maps and charts of the area in which you are operating. Get a general picture in your mind of the locations of lands and islands in the vicinity. We hope the information will never come in handy, but it might.
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SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
Direction at Sea
Now, suppose you are alone in a life raft. You have studied maps every chance you have had. You have a fair idea of the position where you crashed. You know there is a lot of land over to the west— -none to the north, south, or east. There is a fair breeze blowing. Do you want to spread your parachute to make a sail, or don’t you?
It all depends, of course, on which way the wind is blowing. The ocean looks just the same in all directions, and it isn’t labeled north, south, east, and west.
This is where it is handy to have a little knowledge about the stars, sun, and moon — not a lot of technical knowledge which requires bubble octants, etc., but some simple landmarks in the heavens like those the ancient Polynesians used in sailing all around the South Pacific in their dug-out, outrigger canoes, centuries ago.
The Sun
We all know that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west, and that, therefore, it travels from east to west. If you are north of latitude 23° 27' N. the sun will invariably pass to the south of you on its daily trip across the sky.
Latitude 23° 27' N. is an imaginary line passing approximately through the Marcus Islands, Formosa, the tip of Lower Califor- nia, along the northern shore of Cuba, and through the north X>art of the Arabian Sea. ( See fig. 2. )
The sun follows the upper path at about the 21st of June each year before starting slowly south.
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If you are south of latitude 23°27' S. the sun will always pass to the north of you on its daily trip from east to west. Lat. 28°27' S. passes roughly through Noumea, Hio de Janeiro, and the southern part of Madagascar. This line is shown as the
SUN IS SOUTH
SUN’S PATH
ON JUNE 21 ST-
SUN’S PATH ON
DECEMBER 21 ST*
FROM HERE
Figure 2. — Sun’s path around earth.
lower one in figure 2 and marks the path of the sun on about December 21 of each year 'before starting slowly north again.
About March 21 and September 21 of each year the sun travels across the sky directly along the Equator. If you should be a few miles north of New Guinea or in the center of the Macassar
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SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
Strait, or around the northern Galapagos Islands on those dates the sun would pass directly overhead.
Stars
The stars also move across the sky from east to west. Their position relative to one another remains fixed. This is a con- venience in locating them, once you learn the relationship of stars and groups of stars to one another. Upon locating one or more stars or constellations in the sky you can use them as markers or landmarks, telling you where to look for others whose direction from the first you know.
You won’t find the same stars in the same part of the heavens every night. This is because the sun, which is responsible for our days and nights, moves westward around the earth at a slightly greater speed than do the stars.
Consequently stars which may be just appearing over the horizon at midnight, one month, may be high in the heavens at midnight another month. Or they may not appear at all. The latter happens when they travel across the sky within a few hours of the sun, which, of course, would be during daylight. For the stars travel across the sky in daylight just as they do at night. During the day the sky is so light that the stars cannot be seen.
Planets
Planets such as Mars, Jupiter, and Yenus closely resemble stars — except that they do not twinkle as do stars, or change their apparent brightness. Planets are known as wanderers, since they move about among the stars. Because of their vagrant habits they are not much help to the survivor in determining
MEN AGAINST THE SEA
23
directions. But it is well to know that some bright “star” is probably a wandering planet, and not a sign that you are seeing things.
Constellations
Groups of stars are known as constellations. Some of the most prominent and easily identifiable constellations, and single stars, are described in the following pages. Tonight would be as good a night as any to get outside and begin training yourself
I Belt of
« Orion
I
||l
☆ j
S.
Figure 3.- — Belt of Orion.
24
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
to recognize them as easily as yon do familiar buildings, streets, and parks of your home town.
Belt of Orion
The constellation of Orion consists of seven stars. The three close together (see fig. 3) are the brightest and most distinctive.
If you hold this page above you and look up at it you will see Orion as it would appear when directly overhead or in the heavens to the south of you. Now turn the page around until the top is toward your chin. You will then see Orion as it would appear if you faced the north to view it.
Orion, whenever it can be seen, rises above a point on the hori- zon due east of you. It will set due west of you wherever you may be.
It will pass directly overhead if you are on the Equator. It will pass north of the point directly overhead if you are in south latitude and south of you if you are in north latitude.
Rising in the East
☆
&
( MAHON 9NI9VJ ) MAHON 30(3
Setting in the West ☆
☆
☆
18V3 3HA Ml 8N»$ty
Che South
C Facing South }
FiGUBE 4.— Positions of Orion.
J.S3M 3MJL m ©NI1X3S
MEN AGAINST THE SEA
25
If you could face south and watch Orion’s Belt climb up from the eastern horizon, reach its highest point, and drop down to- ward the western horizon, it would occupy the positions shown in figure 4. (Face south and hold this overhead to read.)
Now turn the page upside down.
Held above your head this way the figure shows the way Orion would move across the sky if you faced north to see it.
The Dipper
The Dipper is a distinctive constellation containing seven stars. If you are in northern latitudes it will be the most important constellation in the heaven for you to identify.
The reason for its name is clearly shown in figure 5. The two stars indicated are called pointers. In a moment we shall see their use.
Polaris— The North Star
As the Dipper is the most important constellation in northern latitudes, Polaris is the most important star. Since it is almost directly over the North Pole it can for practical purposes be considered to be due north of you wherever you may be. It can also help you to estimate your latitude as we shall explain in a moment.
The unfortunate thing about Polaris is that it is not very bright and is sometimes hard to locate if the sky is hazy. With- out the Dipper it would be very hard to find. But the two “pointers” of the Dipper, whatever its position, invariably “point” to Polaris.
28
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
As shown in figure 5, the Dipper moves slowly around Po- laris— occupying in turn the positions shown.
Hold the page above you — and face north to view it. That should give you an idea of the way the Dipper and Polaris will appear.
Figure 5. — North Star and Dipper, showing “pointers.”
ME N AGAINST THE SEA
27
Now that you know how to locate Polaris — if you are north of the Equator (if you are south of the Equator you won’t be able to see it) — remember this rule. The number of degrees Polaris is above your horizon will always be nearly equal to your latitude.
This means, if Polaris is 30° above the horizon, you are in latitude 30° N. ; if it is 50° above the horizon you are in 50° N. ; if it is 90° above your horizon you are at the North Pole and that is no place to be in a rubber boat !
Figure 6 is a diagrammatic sketch of what has just been described.
LATITUDE 4S Mo
Directly
Overhead
i
^ Polaris
*
/
/
/
/
\ /
/
To estimate the angular distance of Polaris above the horizon you must first estimate the point in the heavens which is exactly
28
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
overhead. From the horizon to that point is 90°. Halfway from the horizon to the zenith (the point overhead) would be 45°, one-sixth (or one-third of half-way) would he 15°, and so on.
Of course, 1 degree of latitude is 60 miles, so if you are 10 degrees off in estimating the altitude of Polaris you will be 600 miles off in your estimate of latitude. If you ever have to use this, measure the star’s altitude as exactly as you can — and then don’t place too much confidence in the accuracy of your estimate.
Southern Cross
In the Southern Hemisphere Polaris is not visible. There the Southern Cross is the most distinctive constellation. As you
☆
Figure 7. — Southern Cross.
MEN AGAINST THE SEA
29
fiy south the Southern Gross appears shortly before Polaris drops from sight astern. An imaginary line through the long axis of the Southern Cross or True Cross points toward the South Pole. ( See fig. 7. ) The True Cross should not be confused with a larger i^ross nearby known as the False Cross, The lat- ter, though the stars are more widely spaced, is less bright. It has a star in the center, making five stars in all, while the True Cross has only four. Two of these are two of the brightest stars in the heavens. These are the stars on the southern and eastern arms. Those on the northern and western arms, while bright, are smaller.
There is no star above the South Pole to correspond to Polaris above the North Pole. In fact the point where such a star would be, if one existed, lies in a region devoid of stars. This point is so dark in comparison with the rest of the sky that it is known as the Coal Sack.
Figure 7 shows not only the True Cross but to the west of it the False Cross. Note, just to the east of the True Cross (hold the page above your head to make it realistic) two very bright stars. By using them and the True Cross as guides you can pretty accurately locate the spot within the “Coal Sack” which is exactly above the South Pole.
First extend an imaginary line along the long axis of the Cross to the south. Join the two bright stars to the east of the Cross with an imaginary line. Bisect this line with one at right angles. Where this east line intersects the one through the Cross is (approximately) the point above the South Pole.
570603°— 44
3
30
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
This point can be used to estimate latitude in the same manner as is Polaris in northern latitudes— by its height above the horizon.
Orientation
We have, therefore, indications of north, south, east, and west by day or night. If you can determine any of the cardinal directions you can easily determine the others.
Well out to sea the prevailing winds from about 8° -10° N. to about 40° N. (look this up on a map or globe and see where it is) are from the northeast— blowing toward the south- west. They are called the northeast trades. They will carry you in a southwesterly direction.
North of 40° N. and south of 40° S. the winds are usually from the west and will tend to carry you eastward.
These are only general rules. There are many local and some seasonal exceptions. Learn as much as you can by observations and questions about the winds and sea currents in the areas in which you operate.
Learn to pick out the stars that have been mentioned and many more. Learn where to look for them in the heavens. That is how the first navigators found their way, and without navigational instruments it is still the best.
Ill
LANDFALL AND ISLAND SURVIVAL
In looking for land remember that cumulus clouds in an other- wise clear sky are likely to have been formed over land. Since they may have drifted from their original position steer to the windward rather than to the leeward of them. “Lagoon Glare,” a greenish tint in the sky caused by the reflection of sunlight from coral reefs, may often be seen from a long distance. It is often more easily noted by looking slightly to one side of the point rather than directly at it. Driftwood and floating plants are a good indication of land. Coral reefs often cause difficulty in landing and should be approached cautiously. The surf is not so great if you make your landing on the lee side of an island. Breaks in the reef are Indicated by calm gaps in the long line of breakers. If the pass is deep the color will be clear blue. If shallow it will be uniformly or blotchy brown. For navigation in shoal coral waters it is always desirable to have the sun anywhere except dead ahead. The ideal condition is to have the sun over one’s shoulder or even directly overhead.
Men adrift, especially in northern latitudes, sometimes imagine they can see things which are not there, such as smoke, sails, ships, or land. This is a form of mirage, the same phenomenon that occurs in the desert, and if you experience it, it does not mean that you are out of your mind or even light-headed.
If you land on an island which is not in enemy territory and has natives on it, the worst of your troubles are over; they
SI
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
know what to do and will help yon. For more information on natives see the section on that subject.
Footgear is important here, for cuts made by live coral are always painful and slow to heaL Your main needs will again be water, food, and shelter.
PROTECTION FROM THE SUN
On most islands in the tropics some protection from the sun is necessary to prevent sunstroke and severe sunburn. Should you lack normal clothing or equipment there are several expe- dients which will minimize these dangers. Keep out of the sun as much as possible during the middle of the day. If green leaves are available tie them on to protect your head from the sun. Coconut oil smeared over exposed portions of the body also helps. See following discussion of the coconut.
QUENCHING THIRST
Many islands in the Pacific have a good water supply; others do not. In this regard it is interesting to note that many native peoples live permanently on islands that lack streams, springs, wells, or even coconuts. They get their water in a number of ways. In some cases there are holes and hollows in the rocks that collect rain water ; always look for these. Shallow pits or holes are also dug to catch rain or the seepage of water after rains, or water is obtained by digging holes along the shore at low tide. If you are forced to dig such a well, in the absence of better tools a large shell lashed to a stick makes a serviceable implement. Do not go deeper than the first water found. Fresh
LANDFALL AND ISLAND SURVIVAL
33
water, being lighter than sea water, has a tendency to remain on the surface of salty water and that seeping through the sand may be a bit fresher than the sea water.
A little salt is good for you in the tropics where excessive perspiration robs the body of natural salts, but remember that too much salt is bad. Yery limited quantities of the brackish water should be taken the first day or sickness will result. This is equally true of any other water drunk after a long pe- riod of thirst. Sip it up slowly or you will throw it up. In some cases it is possible to obtain slightly better water than that from the holes along the beach. There are some of the low sand islands in the Pacific area that rise from the beach to an elevation of 30 to 40 feet and from this high point slope toward a central basin which may or may not contain a lagoon of salt water. By digging near the foot of the inner slope, water may be found at a depth of from 3 to 5 feet, especially if there have been relatively recent rains. As in the case of the wells along the beach, do not dig too deep or it will fill with salt water. Stop at the first water found and after the bottom of the hole has filled skim the water off the top to get the fresher part of it. Care should be taken not to stir up all of the water at the bottom of such a well or it may be as salty as that along the beach. The water thus obtained may be dis- colored and somewhat brackish but it can be used.
Upon atolls or coral islands which do not have enough rain- fall to support trees, you will find a weed known as pigweed, or purslane. To alleviate thirst, chew the fleshy, reddish-green leaves and stems. The weed stands 8 inches high and covers the ground in patches. No other atoll plant is like it. (Mg. 8.) On islands covered with jungle there are often air plants
LANDFALL and island survival
36
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
in the trees. The bases of the leayes of these air plants hold water for a long time. It is necessary to strain out bugs, wrig- glers or an occasional frog but the water is good. The tips of the aerial roots of the pandanus tree (Fig. 9) may also be chewed for their moisture content. On islands where cactus grows, moisture may be obtained from the pulp of that plant.
THE COCONUT
Where there are coconuts your problem is much simpler. That the coconut is a valuable source of food and drink is well known. It also provides coconut oil, strong fibers which can be used in an emergency to manufacture cordage, and fronds or leaves for sandals, baskets, and building shelters. The coco- nut grows wild along the coast of many tropical countries and islands. The great importance of the coconut justifies a brief description of its qualities together with directions as to how the nut can be collected, husked, and opened. For other plant foods* see section on Tropical Foods.
The coconut grows in clusters on a tall palm. (Fig. 10). The first problem in the use of the coconut is to get it down from’ the tree. You may find yourself badly in need of a coconut for food or drink, but unable to climb the tree, gome coconut palms are very difficult to climb unless you have had considerable practice, but there is a simple device known as “the climbing bandage.” It consists of a belt or rope which is a little larger around than the circumference of the tree.
If you have a belt or rope or even a piece of cloth put it around the trunk of the palm tying it so as to leave enough room for your feet, and step on it with both feet. The loop will catch on the other side of the trunk and will support your weight. Beach up with your arms and grasp the trunk with
LANDFALL AND ISLAND SURVIVAL 37
38
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
both hands. Pull yourself up, doubling your knees 'and sliding the “bandage” up to a higher position with your feet. Straighten up, resting your weight on the “bandage” to get a new position. By repeating this process you can climb to any height. You will note that this permits free use of your hands when you reach the top, so that you can pick the nuts. Let them drop. They won’t be hurt, but don’t lie under a coconut tree or they may hurt you!
On any single palm, the nuts will be in different stages of maturity. In general, the immature nuts are smaller and greener than the ripe ones.
The three main stages of the coconut’s development and their uses should be recognized :
(1) The husk of the half -grown coconut is green or light yellow. The jelly-like flesh can be scooped out and consumed in sufficient quantities to satisfy hunger, and balanced with fish, will sustain life indefinitely. It is at this stage that the water or milk is best for drinking. It rates next to water and is better than beer as a thirst quencher.
(2) The hard meat of the mature coconut (the stage at which the nut is sold commercially in the United States) is too rich in oil to be eaten in quantity. At this stage the nut has fallen from the tree and the husk is brown. The milk is still good. The meat may be grated with a piece of coral or the edge of a shell and the grated meat squeezed in the hand to produce a thick cream which can be used as a sauce for fish, pandanus or other available food.
; (3); The sprouted nut (the shoot of a new tree has begun to
grow and roots appear) has a spongy growth within at the stem end. The growth gradually absorbs all of the milk and
LANDFALL AND ISLAND SURVIVAL
39
meat. It is excellent food and a welcome variation from coco- nut meat.
If a tree can be felled (not a recommended procedure, obviously, where trees are sparse), a large amount of edible celery-like material known as the heart of the coconut, or “cab- bage,” may be obtained from the center of the trunk at its junc- ture with the sprouting leaves.
The nut is encased in a husk consisting of a smooth exterior and a matting of tough fibers. If you have a heavy knife or an axe, you need not remove the husk of the green coconut in order to get at the liquid. You can whittle off the husk at the free end (not the stem end) to a crude point and then cut off the end and the top of the nut inside, thus obtaining the liquid. If, however, you do not have a machete , which incidentally is the most valuable single thing a man can have in the tropics , you can follow this procedure: drive a stake, 3 or 4 feet long, into the ground so that it slants away from you at a slight angle. The top of the stake should be given a crude edge so that it will pierce the longitudinal fibers of the husk. Stand about a foot away from the stake, judging the point of entry so that the stake will clear the nut within the husk. Then push down with your hands giving the coconut a twisting motion to pry off a small portion of the husk. By repeating this process, you can entirely remove the husk from the nut. You can husk green or mature nuts in the same manner.
Once the nut has been removed from the husk, your problem is to break through the hard shell of the nut. To open a young nut, hold it in one hand so that the eyes, which are at the stem end, are uppermost. Strike the nut sharply with a stone, or the point of a mature nut, just below each of the eyes. This will
40
SURVIVAL OH LAND AND SEA
crack the shell and the top of the nut can be picked off without spilling the liquid. If the nut is mature, poke out the eyes and drink the water. To break it open place it on its side on the palm of your hand. In your other hand grasp a stone and strike the middle of the nut with it. Revolve the nut a quarter turn and strike it again. Continue to turn the nut, striking it each time, until the nut cracks in half.
Coconut oil is a good preventive for sunburn, as well as an aid to keeping off small mites, sometimes called chiggers, and other insects. You can get coconut oil quite easily by exposing the meat of the coconut to the sun. The oil will run more quickly if you grate or pound it before placing it in the sun. You can also get coconut oil by heating coconut meat over a slow fire. If you have any kind of cooking pot or a section cut from a bamboo tree (see p. 41, under Sea Food) you can boil coconut meat in water ; when the mixture cools the oil will rise to the top. If you apply even a thin coating of coconut oil to your skin you need have little fear of sunburn.
The natives of Oceania have discovered that coconut oil is a good preventive against salt water sores and bloating. Before going fishing on the reef they are careful to smear their legs and feet with this oil. By this means, they are able to keep their skin in good condition, despite the fact that they have to stand in salt water many hours at a time.
ISLAND SEA FOOD
Anyone stranded on a beach or shore should have little diffi- culty in maintaining himself for an indefinite period on shellfish or mollusks. These are an abundant source of food much appre-
LANDFALL AND ISLAND' SURVIVAL
41
dated by all native peoples. All you need to do is work along the beacb when the tide is out and gather a supply. There will be no difficulty in finding mollusks by turning over blocks of coral rock or picking them up in exposed situations. If you do not see anything but empty shells walk slowly along the beach and watch for bubbles in the sand — like those seen in the bot- tom of springs. When you see them dig down and you will find your mollusks. Shellfish can be eaten raw, as we eat oysters, and the juice coming from clams is not only nutritious but serves to quench thirst as well. The shells can be crushed with a rock or a piece of wood and the animal be extracted. Shellfish can be cooked by covering them with sand or earth and building a fire over the pile. (For fire-making methods when you have no matches see section under Tropical Forests p. 65.) When this is done they steam in their own juices. They can also be cooked by being dropped in a container of boiling water. Sec- tions of bamboo can serve this purpose. Cut a section from a large bamboo stem, preserving one of the joints to form the bot- tom. The green shell is so durable that water can be boiled in it before the bamboo burns. If the container is held over the fire on a slant rather than straight up and down, the water heats faster. A hole lined with canvas or other material which will hold water can also be used for cooking. In the latter case hot rocks moved from the fire by improvised wooden tongs are dropped into the water until boiling is complete. Mollusks are found on reefs and beaches everywhere in this vast south- ern area. Similar forms appear in other tropical seas such as the Caribbean and parts of the South Atlantic.
There are two groups of tropical mollusks, fortunately not common, that should be avoided. These are the cones, so named
42
SURVIVAL, ON LAND AND SEA
from cone-like shape of their shells (see figs. 11 and 12) and the spindle-shaped terebras. Because of their characteristic form they are easily recognized. They have poison glands at the base of their hollow teeth and their bite is similar to that of venomous snakes. They should be left alone.
Figure 11. — Poisonous Terebras. Length %" to 8".
In addition to the mollusks, crabs and lobsters are to be found in the crevices and among rocks or reefs and rocky shores. Included among the crabs in the Pacific and Indian Oceans is a large swimming variety that is related to our Chesapeake Bay blue crab (they turn red on being cooked). This form is distinguished by the paddle-like shape of the last pair of legs.
LANDFALL AND ISLAND SURVIVAL 43
Figure 12. — Poisonous Cones. Length to 10".
Crabs and lobsters can most easily be caught at night, as that is the time when they generally move about. They may be stunned with a stick or stone, caught in the hands, or trapped. They often can be taken on a line baited with dead fish or spoiled meat. Tie the bait on just above a sinker of some kind and pull in from time to time, not too hard or the crab will let go, to see if you have caught one. Traps baited with fish or animal flesh are commonly used by commercial crab and lobster- men but probably would not be practical, except for more or
44
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
less permanently established shore parties. A dip net fashioned by making a hoop from a shoot or small branch and interlacing strips of palm leaves or fibers or one made from an article of clothing, is most useful in taking these creatures. Spiny lob- sters or sea crawfish in the Tropics do not have large pincers on their front legs but do have “thorns” or spines on their backs. These can produce severe lacerations if seized by the bare hand. Hence the hand should be protected, if possible, by a stout glove or some equivalent. Spiny lobsters often may be caught by placing a dipnet behind them and with the foot touching their antennae, the long flexible processes projecting from their heads. This causes the creatures to move backward quickly into the net or bag, which must be yanked up immedi- ately. Crabs also may occur in fresh-water lakes and streams, both in the mountains and on the plains, and frequently travel about on dry land. Some, such as the purse-crab of the East Indies, may be found on the trunks of trees.
As far as is known all crabs and lobsters, whether marine, fresh-water, or land forms, are fit for human consumption pro- vided they are fresh. Salt water forms can be eaten raw with little likelihood of bad effects, but all land crabs , particularly in Asia and the closely adjacent islands, should be thoroughly cooked , since they are infected with lung parasites that are often fatal to human beings if the animals are eaten raw. The best way to cook crabs and lobsters is to drop them alive into boiling water and keep them boiling for 20 minutes to half an hour. Thus there is no danger of decay before cooking and they become sterilized at the same time.. The shells and pulpy gills are easily removed after cooking. Most people insist that the gills (sometimes called the “deadman’s fingers”) be re-
LANDFALL AHD ISLAND SURVIVAL
45
moved immediately. Actually they are harmless and will cause no trouble if eaten. They have acquired a bad name because they are about the first spot to spoil. All danger of this is avoided by immediate cooking and eating.
In addition to mollusks and fish, another source of food are the holothurians of sea-cucumbers (like fig. 49-G). These ani- mals are found on all tropical reefs, and almost everywhere on rocky shores. In the Indo-Pacific region, especially on the Aus- tralian reefs, they form the basis of an extensive and valuable fishery. They are also common in the West Indies. The kinds used as food are for the most part roughly cylindrical with a more or less corrugated or warty tough skin, usually from a foot to a foot and a half long when extended, and about half as long when contracted. The Australian commercial variety is even longer. The edible portion of a sea-cucumber consists of five long white muscles on the inside of the body. These can be stripped off and boiled, fried, or eaten raw.
Still another source of sea food is sea urchins or sea eggs. Sea urchins are found on all tropical reefs and along all rocky shores and form an important source of food in many regions, especially in southern Europe, the West Indies, southern South America, parts of the Indo-Pacific region, and the Aleutian Islands. They are globular in shape, usually somewhat flat- tened, from 2 to 6 inches in diameter and are covered with spines (like fig. 4£M3) . The edible portion consists of the masses of eggs within their bodies. These eggs usually form five finger- like, more or less yellow colored processes on top of the body inside the shell. They may be eaten either raw or boiled.
In temperate and arctic seas all the sea urchins present may be handled with impunity. But in the tropical seas there
570603°-- 44 4
46
SURVIVAL OK LAND AKB SEA
are two types that are more or less dangerous. These are the so-called needle-urchins and the soft-bodied urchins.
The needle-urchins are from 2 or 3 to 6 inches in diameter, black or more or less reddish, with very long and slender needle- pointed spines which may reach 10 or even 15 inches in length. These spines are provided with whorls of minute barbs and are very brittle, breaking off after penetrating the liesh. One form of needle-urchin found throughout the Indo-Pacific region but not in the Atlantic has, in addition to the very long spines, numerous shorter, much more slender, and smooth spines which are connected with poison glands. These shorter spines are definitely dangerous even to touch, as they discharge an active and painful poison.
The soft-bodied urchins occur in shallow water throughout the Indo-Pacific region, but not in the Atlantic or along the west coast of tropical America. They reach a diameter of nearly 7 inches, and are much flattened. The usual size is between 3 and 6 inches. They vary in color from dark purplish or greenish hues to white, and often are more or less extensively marked with red. Some are almost wholly red. Usually they show an iridescent blue tinge. The shell is flexible, feeling somewhat like parchment, and is not rigid like that in most sea urchins. The spines are short and fine, rather widely scattered, and are exceedingly sharp. Some of them, more slender than the others, are provided with glands that secrete a very powerful poison that produces effects similar to those caused by the poison from the bites of sea-snakes or cobras. To be certain whether a sea urchin is soft-bodied or not poke it with a stick or some other object before you touch it with your hand.
LANDFALL AND ISLAND SURVIVAL
4F
Hints on Fishing and Preparing Fish
Fish are one of the most abundant types of food available on the reefs, in the lagoons, and in the sea. At night some species of fish come close inshore and swim along the surface. By re- maining still, a person can hit them with sticks or spear them with a sharpened pole as they surface.
The outer margins of reefs usually contain channels, while on the surfaces of reefs are pools among the rocks and coral blocks. Fish frequently swim into these places at high tide, leaving as the water recedes. It is possible to trap them at such times by blocking the opening with rocks, sticks, or leaves from palm trees. Stones also may be built into low walls extending out into the water and forming an angle with the shore. Fish can be driven into this neck or narrow channel and into a pool at its inner end, and there be confined in the manner mentioned above. In many cases, it may be advantageous to keep them alive until needed, a fresh supply without danger of spoilage thus being provided. In addition, the usual methods of hook and line fish- ing should be used. If you do not have regular equipment try making your own as suggested in the section on Food at Sea, page 10.
When more fish are caught than are required to satisfy im- mediate needs, it is possible to preserve them for a time by cut- ting the flesh into small thin strips, washing with clean water, then hanging in the wind and sunlight to dry. Another method after the fish is properly cleaned, is to cut diagonal slits from one-half to one inch apart across the sides of the fish. The fish is then hung in the sun or placed on the surface of a rock with cuts exposed for drying. Such fish may also be salted or smoked.
48
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
Under ordinary conditions, these methods should preserve the fish for a few days in the tropics.
Fish caught in tropical waters spoil quickly. Immediately after landing a fish it should be bled by cutting out the gills and large blood vessels that supply them, and then gutted, being careful to remove the kidneys and blood vessels that lie next to the backbone. The fish should then be washed in clean water. If the fish have been feeding heavily and are not gutted, the digestive substances continue to act, even after death, on the food in the stomach and intestines so that the flesh spoils with great rapidity. The same fish, properly cleaned and hung up by the tail in the shade and breeze, will remain good for many hours.
Never eat a fish that has slimy gills, sunken eyes, flabby flesh or skin, or an unpleasant odor. If, upon pressing the thumb against the fish it remains deeply dented, the fish prob- ably is stale. Do not use it. Good flesh should be firm and not slimy.
Fish With Poisonous Flesh
Most fish are edible, palatable, and wholesome. However, there are a few with flesh that is definitely poisonous and it is important that everyone recognize these.
All of the important fish with poisonous flesh belong to one large group, the Plectognathi, of which there are many kinds in the tropics. All these fish lack ordinary scales such as occur on bass, grouper, and sea trout. Instead, these poisonous fish are covered with bristles or spiny scales, strong- sharp thorns, or spines, or are encased in a bony box-like cover-
LANDFALL AND ISLAND SURVIVAL
49
ing. Some of them have naked skin, that is, no spines or scales. Never eat a fish that blows itself up like a balloon.
The different kinds of poisonous fish can be easily recog- nized by the illustrations herein presented. The usual names given to these poisonous Plectognaths are: swell fish or puffer fish, porcupine fish, burr fish, cowfish, trunk fish, box fish, thorn fish. In addition, the filefish or fool fish and the trigger fish may be looked upon with suspicion for they too have been cred- ited with poisonous flesh, but in certain regions the filefish and trunk fish are regularly eaten. If the natives use them, they are all right. Unless you know, however, leave them alone. The flesh of the puffers, porcupine fish, and the related species is vio- lently poisonous. Cooking does not destroy the poisonous alka- loid in these fish. Obviously these known poisonous fish should never be eaten, as violent sickness and even death may result.
\
Fish With Venomous or Poisonous Spines
Certain other fish should be avoided for a different reason. They have sharp spines on their heads and in their fins. These spines may cause a burning or stinging, even an agonizing pain, that is out of all proportion to the apparent severity of the wound. This is the result of venom that is injected when the spines penetrate the flesh. The venom varies greatly in quantity and in power. In the most venomous varieties it is as deadly as that of the most dangerous snakes.
The worst of the venemous fish are the Scorpaenidae. They are generally known by the following common names : scorpion fish, w’arty lumpfish or stonefish, toadfish, zebra fish or tiger fish, and stinging fish. These are illustrated. (Fig. 18.)
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SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
A. Scorpion fish.
B. Filefish (trigger fish similar).
C. Sting ray (as seen from above).
D. Zebra fish.
E. Stonefish (sometimes called
toadfish).
F. Toadfish.
G. Porcupine fish (puffer similar).
Figure 13.-— -Poisonous and venomous fish.
Stonefish do not swim about to any extent. They gener- ally lie quietly on the bottom, which they exactly resemble in
LANDFALL AND ISLAND SURVIVAL
51
color. As a rule they are either yellowish gray or blackish in color, often having flecks or patches of red or orange that give them a mottled appearance like the floor of the sea. When wading on a reef you should keep careful watch for such fish. Make it a rule to carry a long sharp pole or bamboo stick and poke any suspicious looking object on the bottom. At the slightest touch each of the projecting spines on these fish injects venom and causes severe pain. A full charge of venom from the whole dorsal fin has been known to cause death.
The next most dangerous after the scorpion fish are the sting rays. These occur in lagoons, shallow bays, estuaries, and far up many of the tropical rivers. They usually lie on the bot- tom concealed in the mud or sand. Sting rays are easily recognized when seen. (Fig. 13-C.) The tail may be long or very short, and is armed with one or two long, sharp-pointed spines with serrated edges. When stepped upon, the ray re- peatedly whips its tail upward with great force and fury and may drive the spine clear through one of the bones of the leg or foot as well as through the flesh. The pain is most severe and infection usually results. When walking in turbid or muddy water or over sandy or muddy bottom, poke ahead of you with your stick and do not pick your feet up and set them down in the usual manner. Slide them along in the mud. Should your feet touch a hidden sting ray it will swim away as fast as it can. If you set your foot squarely on one, however, your weight will anchor it down and give the tail the leverage needed to drive the spine into you.
Some catfish have poison glands at the base of the spines on the breast fin. This venom is much like that of bees, caus- ing severe pain, but it is not deadly. Since some of the larger catfish have barbed spines, the wound made is jagged and secondary infection may occur.
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All wounds made by fish spines should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected at once.
Handling Dangerous Fish
Never attempt to pick up a scorpion fish of any kind with the bare hands. It makes no difference how the fish has been taken, with hook and line, poison or dynamite. If the fish has any life left, a slight movement may drive a spine into your finger, car- rying enough venom to cause excruciating agony. Always use a dip net , your spear , or some substitute , such as your machete or bayonet. Never poke your bare hands into holes or crevices in the corals or feel under rocks. To do so invites grave risk of serious wounds. A moray eel or wolf fish may be in such hid- ing places. Moray eels are brightly colored and many have strongly marked patterns. In the American tropics a common one is greenish black in color and 5 to 6 feet long. One form in the Mediterranean is golden yellow in front, purple toward the tail, and is beautifully banded and mottled. It attains a length of 4 feet or more. In the Pacific some of those around the coral reefs grow to a length of 10 feet or more, and commonly have a light-colored background with black spots or a network of black lines. Others have black or brownish over-all color and orange to yellow spots. The morays are always hungry and very savage. Their jaws have strong, knifelike teeth and can easily nip off a finger or two. They have even been known to bite through a heavy shoe. Like other eels, however, they are good to eat. Wolf fish are grayish or brownish in color and have an elongate body, 4 to 6 feet in length, tapering to a more or less rounded tail. They have strong, sharp teeth and are noted for their ferocity. Natives avoid such dangers almost instinctively. You must learn — but don’t learn the hard way. Death may be the result of carelessness.
IV
NATIVES
%
If yon are in a region inhabited by native peoples make every effort to get in touch with them and ask them for help. You run little danger if you approach them in a friendly manner. Never show fear, or threaten, or flourish a gun. As a rule it is fear on the part of natives that makes them attack strangers and if you do nothing to cause concern you will be perfectly safe. Go up to them as you would to individuals of your own race and color, smile, offer a cigarette if you have one, and make your wants known. You may need to use signs to show them what you want — food, water, or directions — but natives are accustomed to such procedure, as they often communicate in that fashion themselves and will understand. The important thing is to treat them with dignity. Most of them have a strong sense of self-respect and do not regard themselves as ‘"na- tives’5 or primitive. They will appreciate being treated as human beings just like yourself, neither as inferiors nor as superiors.
Should the natives be inclined to be shy or unapproachable do not rush matters by going right up to them. Stop where you are. Sit down and light up a smoke. If you know any tricks with string, take out, a piece and proceed to do things with iff Most natives have and are fond of an elaborate variety of string figures, such as the familiar cat’s cradle, which they make for their own amusement and on some occasions for ceremonial
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purposes. They also are very curious and in a short time some of them may not be able to hold back any longer and will come to see what you are doing. When they do, hand them the string and they will probably show you a few tricks. If you don’t have string take out some trinket and show interest in it. They will want to see, too. Once the ice is broken, you can go ahead and ask for what you need. This method of approach has been used many times in many parts of the world by those going to study native peoples and rarely has it failed to produce the desired results.
Most native houses are small and crowded and more often than not are infested with fleas, lice, bedbugs, and other disease- carrying creatures. It is strongly advised that you do not stay in them unless compelled by extreme circumstances. If it is apparent that you are to be there for some time they can and probably will be willing to build you a shelter in short order. Of course, one should never enter a native house without being invited. They don’t like to have strangers come barging into their homes any more than you would. Without making it seem that you are doing so, it is advisable to avoid as much as possible all physical contacts with the natives. They often suffer from serious skin diseases, syphilis, tuberculosis, and other communicable ailments. If it can be done without giving offense, one should prepare his own food and drink in such surroundings.
Should it be necessary for you to remain with a native group for any length of time you must be very observant and learn from experience what you can and can not do. Respect their customs and manners. They have an entirely different form of etiquette from ours, but one that they believe in as strongly as we do in
NATIVES
55
ours. In general yon will find that the less civilized the natives are, the stronger the local taboos or restraints will be and the more you will be expected to conform to them. Respect for per- sonal property, as well as for privacy, is very important. Never pick fruits, kill pigs, or take other food without first ascertain- ing their ownership, gaining permission and paying for them. Remember that in isolated regions money has little value ; paper money is actually worthless and coins only are a medium of ex- change insofar as they have trinket or jewelry value. Often- times matches, cigarettes, empty containers, or other odds and ends that you may have in your pockets are worth more to the native than any form of money. An exception, of course, would be a group that is living close to the outposts of civilization and white man’s stores. Under such conditions money may be the preferred medium of exchange, but unless it is, don’t try to force it on them. Be sure, however, that you make some form of pay- ment. Also, if you make a promise of any kind, keep it literally. You can’t pull a fast one on a native and get away with it.
One thing above all to bear in mind is to leave the native wo- men alone . More white men have been killed by natives for trying to make some dusky dame than for any other reason. Even if the circumstances are favorable, which they may be under certain conditions with a father, brother, or husband offering a woman to you, it is better to skip the opportunity, as a case of venereal disease usually can be expected as a follow-up, this being one of the “benefits” of civilization bestowed by the white man wherever he has gone. If you must play with fire re- gardless of all considerations, do your dickering with the men and pay them first. Native women are often considered as chattels and do not have free say in such matters. Permission
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in such cases must come from some male relative as well as the woman herself. Also remember that among native peoples there is frequently little secrecy about such affairs. They usually become a matter of common village gossip.
When staying with natives there are certain things you can do that will help you to become accepted as a member of the group more quickly than if you hold aloof. Entertain them with match tricks, games, feats of skill, dances and songs. Unless you are unusually strong and proficient along that line, don’t try to impress them with plain bull strength, as the natives prob- ably are better equipped than you are In that respect and might show you a thing or two. They like to entertain too, so be a good audience and let them perform for you and be duly ap- preciative of their efforts. Show admiration for products of native handicraft, but don’t be too profuse in your praise or they may feel they should give the object to you. Most “primi- tive” peoples are rather fond of playing practical jokes and probably will do so at your expense. If you find yourself the victim of some native form of “hot-foot,” join them in their laughter; don’t lose your temper and show anger even though they have hurt you. Another thing that is of great help in winning favor is to learn as many words of the native language as you can pick up. They will take delight in teaching you if you show a willingness and desire to learn. Whatever you do , leave a good impression because other white men may come along later and need help. If you have abused your privileges or taken advantage of the people those who follow will suffer for it.
Should you be stationed where you have time ashore and there are natives, make friends with some of them and have them
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57
show yon the many useful tricks they know — how they fish, how they make snares and traps to catch birds and small animals, what plants are good for food, and how they cook their various dishes. This not only will help you pass the time, but it may give you a fund of knowledge that will some day save you.
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y
TROPICAL FORESTS
Most of us think of the “ jungle” in terms of a Tarzan movie. The word originally meant a “track of uncultivated land,” but now it is used more specifically to mean a dense tropical thicket of bamboos and palms as in India, of brush and vines as in Australia, of gigantic tangled grasses as in Africa, or to indicate a parklike woodland of tropical trees, a forest choked with undergrowth, or a tangled and impenetrable swamp.
The great tropical jungles of the present day are found in western Africa, northern South America, and southeastern Asia and its islands. The average seaman or Marine is not likely to be plopped down in the center of one of these places as are Marine and Naval aviators, but with the growing use of air transport for Naval personnel such a thing may happen. Fur- thermore, as a result of landing operations you may find yourself in such a location. Knowledge of how to conduct yourself in a tropical forest will serve in any one of these areas in spite of the fact that each one differs from the others.
Remember that the tropical forest is just another woods on a grand scale and that the man who learns how to use it has more chance of survival in it, over a long period of time, than he probably would have in the forest areas of our own country. If it seems to have more alarming noises than you have ever heard before don't get excited. Most of them are caused by
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59
frogs, monkeys, and insects, and other small creatures that exist there in greater numbers than you will ever find in the more northern countries. Even though the movies have taught you that life in the jungle is just one narrow escape after another from leopards, tigers, elephants, and other unpleasant creatures, you probably won’t see any of them at all because many places don’t have them, and where they are present they make every effort to avoid contact with man. The most you can expect to see in the way of animals will be birds, squirrels, hares, monkeys, and other small forms that are active during the day. None of them is dangerous, if left alone.
WATER
Water will not prove to be so much of a problem in most tropical forests as on small atolls and desert islands. In areas of heavy rainfall the earth is so soaked with moisture that a small hole dug in any low spot will yield water. Then there are streams, ponds, springs, and places where water collects from rain and seepage. The main problem is one of purity and no sur- face water should toe drunk without toeing tooiled or chemically treated. In higher portions of the mountains on large islands and the mainland the water from swiftly flowing streams and springs may be used without treatment if absolutely necessary, but even then you will be taking a chance.
In forested areas there frequently are ferns and so-called air- plants in the trees. The bases of the leaves of these plants col- lect and hold water for a long time. When strained through a cloth the water is safe to drink ; it contains no pollution from human sources. Dew can be collected by spreading a piece of
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BEWARlE
LONG
JUNGLE
VINE
Figure 14. — Rattan. See pp. 61, 66, and 112.
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canvas or rubber blanket under the branches of trees and shrubs and shaking the water off the leaves.
The rattans, palms with long slender segmented stems that look like a bamboo vine (see fig. 14), and other large climbing vines carry water absorbed by their roots. Throughout tropical America the so-called “water vine” is well known from this use. To get water, make two cuts, the first a deep notch high up, the second near the ground, where the water will flow. As flow ceases, make further deep cuts down from the first.
GETTING OUT OF THE WOODS
Tropical forests are regions of heavy rainfall. In some cases this may be continual throughout the year ; in others rains come only during certain seasons. In wet forests there usually is little undergrowth except along the banks of streams where it generally is very heavy, but in the so-called dry forests where the rainfall is seasonal the bush may be so thick that you have to hack your way through it wherever you go. In all of these forests, streams or their dry beds are plentiful. As in our own country, following a stream down is certain eventually to lead you to human settlements, and the larger the stream the sooner they will be reached. Streams also lead to the coast and that is where you want to go, arriving as soon as possible. If you are in the mountains, it is probably better to follow the ridges as the stream beds are often precipitous.
If you follow a stream you will not only be provided with water, but with such edible creatures as crabs, shrimps, mollusks, and fish. If it is a large stream build a raft and float it down. Use soft woods, the lighter the better, for the raft. Lash the 570603°— 44 5
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pieces together with vines or fibrous strips of bark. Sections of bamboo, because of their hollow air-filled segments, make the best rafts if that type of growth is available. Fibrous woods, such as the palms, do not float well and will soon sink. While drifting down stream on a raft keep your ears open for the roar of rapids or falls so that you don’t get caught and swept over them. You may have to abandon several rafts in the course of your journey and build new ones, but that is better than trying to ride out a bad stretch of water.
If the stream is too small or too shallow to float a raft you may have to follow along it on foot. In many cases it is im- possible to travel through the heavy vegetation growing along the banks. On the ridge above, however, you will usually find the trees and bushes more open and may even strike a trail, although it probably won’t be as sharp and clear cut as trails in your own woods. The forest people are great travelers within limited areas and follow the easiest routes.
Always remember to take your time. You will make better headway if you do. If you come to a bog or swamp, go around it; don’t try to fight your way through; you might get caught hip deep in muck. If a tree has fallen across a trail, travel around it, not through its branches. It will take longer and use up more energy than going around and you are less likely to become con- fused if you don’t get entangled in vegetation. At sunny clear- ings or. openings in the main forest the scrubby second growth may almost or completely obliterate the path. In such cases cross the clearing and work along* its edge until you again find the trail among the trees. If you come to a fork, take the path that seems to have had the most travel. Never follow one that is closed by a string, rope, grass mat, or some other obvious barrier.
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It may lead to the scene of native religious rites that are for- bidden to strangers, or you may fall into a pit or other dangerous trap set for large game. Smooth, well-traveled trails, particu- larly if they tend to be straight and rather broad, may be game trails and when following these it is well to be on the alert con- tinuously for places that seem to have been disturbed or that have a slightly different appearance from the rest of the ground as they may indicate the presence of a pitfall or trap of some kind. It is well to watch for possible game when traveling such a trail, although it would be a rare thing if you encountered any during daylight hours. Do not camp for the night on such a trail, as that is the time when traffic will be heavy. In tropical forests in Central and South America broad, straight paths may be made by wild pigs and droves of them may rush along such “highways’’ attacking and running over anything that may be in their way. Should you happen to be in such a situation and hear considerable noise in the offing, waste no time in climbing into a tree at one side of the trail.
In the open sun, even on a cloudy day, wear something on your head. If you have lost your hat or helmet a layer of green leaves under a knotted handkerchief or piece of cloth will give you protection. Do not expose yourself to sunburn as it may seriously incapacitate you. During the hottest hours of the day it is well to follow the example of the natives and rest quietly under a tree. Kemember the old song “Mad dogs and Englishmen go out in the midday sun.” Stop travel well before nightfall so that you will have plenty of time to prepare a camp before dark- ness. Don’t forget that twilight is very short in the tropics and that the interval between sunset and dark is brief. Your
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camp should be on rising ground, well back from the stream and away from swamps and bogs, where mosquitoes and sand flies and gnats will be less numerous. Should there be any breeze stirring put your camp where you will get full benefit from it.
A crude lean-to or A-type shelter with a frame of sticks or bamboo with large leaves of leafy branches for walls and a roof will give protection from the cold dew of the tropics and also from prowling animals. Where there is any form of construction the latter will suspect a trap and keep away. In making a lean-to, sink uprights, preferably forked at the upper end, into the ground several feet apart. Then lash a ridge pole in the forks or at the top of the uprights and place inclined pieces from the forks and the ridge pole, their opposite ends resting on the ground at what will be the rear of the shelter. Lash a series of cross pieces to the inclined timbers at intervals not too widely separated. Then, starting at the bottom as you would in shingling a house, thatch the framework with wide-leaved branches. These will hold their positions better if the branches are hooked onto the cross pieces. The bigger and broader the leaves the better the roof. A simpler form of construction, one probably sufficient for a single night, is to place a whole series of inclined pieces along the ridge pole, covering the framework with wide-leaved branches but not bothering to hook them to the framework. For the A-type struc- ture the same procedure may be followed except that the ridge pole needs to be higher and you make two sides to the roof instead of one. A variation may be made by using a series of inverted V-shaped frames for the main support instead of the upright sticks in the center to support the lashed ridge pole. The large leaves of coconut trees are particularly good for making shelters. The leaves themselves attain a length up to 12 feet and the center
TROPICAL FORESTS
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stem is strong enough to be used as the timbers for the frame- work of the structure. Several pairs of these stems lashed in the V-shape with another for the ridge pole make an ideal support for a covering of untrimmed leaves. A shelter of this type large enough to hold 6 men can be built in half an hour. Do not sleep on the bare ground ; it will be cold and damp and you will be more susceptible to visits from various crawling bugs. Make a mat or bed of leaves on which to lie. If you are going to be in the same place for several nights and want to get com- pletely off the ground, make a framework of sticks supported on forked uprights embedded in the ground and pile your leaves on top of it.
FIREMAKING
A fire is advisable and should be built in front of the open side of your shelter. Starting a fire may be a problem ; it will prove doubly so if you have no matches, and to avoid such a con- tingency you should always 'keep some matches about your per- son in a waterproof container. It is even better if the heads have been dipped in paraffin. The old-fashioned nonsafety matches are the best, but safety matches will serve the purpose if kept carefully wrapped in an oilskin tobacco pouch, or in the cellophane from a cigarette package so that the striking surface, as well as the matches, is kept dry. Remember to wrap your matches again as soon as you have used one, as the jungle dampness or perspiration acts on them very quickly. As a matter of fact, a lighter that works and that is kept filled with fluid is much better in moist climates than matches. To find something dry enough to burn in wet weather it will be necessary for you to strip the bark from dead trees or to cut
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away the wet exterior from dead branches and get at the dry wood towards the center. Dead branches pniled from a stand- ing tree may be drier than those lying on the ground. Start with a small fire, enlarging it as more pieces catch, and don’t try to use logs of any size until the blaze is well under way. Once the fire has a good start yon can keep wood drying beside it so that it will burn readily when needed. It is well to lay in a big enough supply to last the night when you are gathering wood. In building the fire it helps if it is placed against several logs of large diameter lying on the ground. If you are in a clearing where there is a breeze, build the fire on the windward side of the logs. They will help to produce a draft and in time will start to burn themselves and help to* throw off heat. When you have a good blaze going it is well to dry out your clothes. This is not only to make you feel more comfortable, but it will keep you from getting chilled in the cooler hours of the night. Green leaves thrown on the fire will make a smudge and help drive off the mosquitoes and sandflies.
When you don’t have matches or a lighter there are a number of ways of starting fires. Natives as a rule are quite adept in the matter, but the average white man needs considerable prac- tice and it may take you a long time to master the art. If you persist, however, you probably will succeed. Making fire by friction is not easy. Perhaps the method most likely to be pro- ductive, certainly the most efficient of the friction methods, is that of the fire thong. Its use has been widespread throughout southeastern Asia, the East Indies, and West Africa, and at one time it was employed in northern Europe. All that is needed in the way of equipment is a strip of dry rattan (Fig. 14), prefera- bly about one-quarter inch in diameter and about 2 feet long, and
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a dry stick about three-fourths inch in diameter and long enough so that it can be held on a rock or another piece of wood with the foot, one end being off the ground. The latter end should be split, the split being held open by a piece of twig or a pebble, and a good sized pinch of tinder wedged snugly, but not too tightly into the open part of the split. The rattan is then held firmly, one end in each hand, and is looped under the split so that the contact will be directly beneath and with the tinder. The rattan is then drawn rapidly back and forth with as much pres- sure as can be applied, the stick being held firmly in place with the foot. Within a few seconds the tinder should start to smoke. When it is smoking well, withdraw it and blow on it until a red coal appears and finally a flame. Beforehand gather shavings, bits of bark, and small twigs that can be added until a blaze sufficient to start larger pieces of wood has been developed.
Tinder may be made from fine, dry vegetable fibers, grass, moss, from lint from a piece of canvas, from a bandage from your first aid kit, or from a piece of your clothing. The fine down from the breasts of birds or from beneath their wings also makes good tinder. Whatever is used, however, must be completely dry. Natives who use this method generally carry their rattan thong with them, wrapped around one arm above the elbow where it can be kept dry and also serve as an orna- ment. This is particularly true of the tribes of the central mountains of New Guinea. They also carry tinder in a pouch where it can be kept dry.
In the Polynesian area of the Pacific Islands the natives com- monly use what is called a fire plow. They find a piece of soft wood 2% to 3 inches in diameter and long enough so that
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one end can be held down by the feet and the other by sitting on it. The stick of wood is split in half and placed on the ground with the rounded side down and the split side with the the pith groove up. The latter serves as the track in which a smaller, flat-pointed stick of the same kind of wood (in some cases a piece of harder wood is used) is rubbed rapidly back and forth. At the start it may be necessary to hold the rubbing stick at a low angle until a good groove is made, one about 5 or 6 inches in length. As soon as the groove is formed the stick is tilted to a 40° to 45° angle and the rubbing continued with gradually increasing speed and a strong downward pres- sure. Wood dust collects at the point of the rubbing stick and as the backward and forward movement continues the dust chars, smoke appears, and a glowing spark develops. Care must be taken not to carry the stroke too far forward and scatter the pile of dust. Friction is the important factor and to obtain it rapid movement is essential. The faster you work the rubbing stick the greater the likelihood that you will get out of the groove and lose the accumulation of hot wood dust, hence the need to concentrate on the matter of stopping the forward stroke at the proper place. Once you have produced the smouldering spark or ember it is necessary to nurse the spark into flame with tinder as in the case of the fire thong.
Another method of obtaining the first glowing ember is by m’eans of a two-stick fire drill (Fig. 15). This system has been world-wide in its distribution, but is probably one of the most difficult to master. For a drill get a straight, seasoned stick or plant stalk 1 from one-fourth to five-eights inch in diameter and 15 to 30 inches in length. Round oft the ends ; don’t make sharp points on them. Then find a dry, dead branch to make
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the hearth. Split the branch so that there will be a relatively fiat surface and make a concave depression in it to receive the drill. Cut a narrow slot leading out from the side of this cup
Figure 15.— Making fire with how drill, and two-stick fire drill.
to receive the wood dust produced by the rubbing of the spindle or drill against the wood of the hearth; sometimes a very small
TO
SURVIVAL OK LAKD AKD SEA
quantity of sand in the cup will increase the friction. Place the base or hearth board on the ground where you can hold it down with your knees, or have some one hold it down for you if there are others in the party, and place the drill so that it stands upright with its rounded end in the cup. Rotate the drill back and forth between the palms of your hands, exerting a strong downward pressure. The speed should be increased to the maximum as the hands reach the bottom of the stick. Because of the downward pressure the hands tend to work down the drill. When they are several inches above the hearth quickly grasp the drill with the fingers of the left hand to hold it firmly in position and grip the upper end between the thumb and finger of the right hand, shift the left hand quickly to the top opposite the other hand with the fingers extended so that you can turn the right hand downward, grasping the drill between the palms, and begin again the rotation movement. At no time should the end of the drill be permitted to slip from the cup. The stoppage of the drilling during the shifting of the hands should be as short as possible. As the drilling continues wood dust works into the slot and as it gets hotter and hotter, smoke appears and eventually a glowing ember which should be transferred to tinder. If you want to be more certain of catching the hot spark the tinder may be placed around the cup in the hearth at the start. When a bow is used with the drill the process is much simpler and more effective. With the latter, a block of wood is used at the upper end to hold the drill in place in the hearth and the drill, which may be shorter than that used between the palms of the hands, is rapidly rotated back and forth by means of a string wrapped once around it and fastened to the ends of
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a flexible stick like a bow used to shoot arrows (Fig. 15). The string from your shoes will do in making such a bow if you have no other cord. For the use of flint see firemaking in the Arctic, p. 136.
Much easier, of course, is a burning glass if you have one and are where you can get enough sun to use it. In the absence of a regular glass, which is an excellent thing to carry in your pocket, a suitable substitute can be made if two of the members of the party have watches with crystals of approximately the same size. Take the two crystals, place them back to back and fill the space between with water. This will focus the sun to a point sharp enough to start a blaze.
Once you get a fire the best thing to do, as far as future needs are concerned, is to follow the example of the natives and carry it with you from place to place. This is done by using a fire stick, a piece of dry, fibrous, soft wood that smolders like punk and can be blown into flame whenever needed. The dry husks from a coconut make good material for this purpose.
FOREST DANGERS
The creatures that are most dangerous to man are small and inconspicuous for the most part and belong to the insect world. Mosquitoes generally are the most prevalent kind of noxious insect and in many cases are the carriers of yellow fever and malaria. You don’t have to worry about yellow fever, as you have been inoculated against it, but there is no such protection against malaria. Hence you should guard against mosquito bites as much as possible. Since mosquitoes fly only in the evening and at night, the best way to escape infection is to get
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under a net as soon as possible after sunset. This, of course, is not always possible, particularly if you have lost part of your equipment and have no nets. Under such conditions one should cover all exposed parts of the body as far as possible and build a smudge of heavy smoke to help drive off the mosquitoes. If you have salvaged your first-aid kit and are fortunate enough to have atabrine in it, take it. Take 0.1 gm. (1 y2 grains) just before dinner six days a week. If your first-aid kit contains quinine instead of atabrine take 0.6 gm. (10 grains) each day after the evening meal.
Seldom seen but often felt are the mites, commonly called red bugs, bicha colorada, coloradilla, bete rouge, jiggers or chiggers ( although they are not true chiggers ) that are widely distributed in the Americas, Europe, Asia, Australia, Japan, and the East Indies. They are bright red in color but are so small that they are scarcely visible without a magnifying glass. Their bites do not start to itch for several hours, but once they begin, the itching lasts for several days. It can be helped temporarily by painting the bites with iodine, proflavine, zephiran, or what- ever agent you may have. As far as you are able to avoid it, don’t scratch dhese places as you are likely to break the skin and start an infection that will produce an ulcer which is ex- tremely difficult to heal even when frequently and carefully dressed. This holds true for any kind of bug bite. One common rule in the tropics is, If you must scratch , keep your fingernails cut short . The only sure protection against these mites is to avoid going into long grass or other bushy vegetation—a thing practically impossible to do if you are trying to work your way out of a jungle — to dust finely powdered sulphur (if you have it) over your skin and into your underclothing and socks, to use
TROPICAL FORESTS
73
the G. I. insecticide powder or coconut oil, to tie the bottoms of your trousers around your shoe tops, and after exposure to sponge yourself off with alcohol or some disinfectant not too irritating to the skin. A plain bath with soap helps if it is taken soon after you have been in the bush. The use of alcohol or similar solutions probably would depend on your arriving at a properly equipped base within a short time after exposure.
The true chigger, which is abundant in the American tropics and in parts of West Africa and India, is a small kind of flea. In addition to a fondness for men this flea also attacks animals, both tame and wild, and has a particular affinity for pigs. Hence it is likely to be present around any native habitations in those areas where it is common and where pigs are a part of the domestic scene. Chiggers bite like other fleas, but the female has the further unpleasant habit of burrowing into the skin, usually of the feet under the toenails, where in the course of a few days it swells to the size of a small pea and can be recognized as a whitish spot with a dark brown spot in the center. Prompt removal with a sterile needle or knife point (one that has been held in the flame of a match) is advised, as neglect may result in poisoning the whole system. As soon as you have removed the chigger, paint the place with iodine and cover with a protective dressing.
In the American tropics you may be bothered by wood ticks. They are small, dark red or brown and may be numerous in vegetation. They feed by burying the head and sucking blood. As a rule they do not take hold for several hours after getting on you and by carefully looking yourself over from time to time you can see and pick them off before they bite. You can remove them between your thumb and the point of a knife pressed
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against the skin. If they have taken hold yon may have to dig them out. Be sure to sterilize your needle or knife point before doing so and paint with iodine afterwards. In Asia, China, and the East Indies there are ticks of a different variety that in- habit the crevices in the mud walls of native huts and rest- houses. These should be avoided, as they carry a form of fever. Staying out of native huts is a good way to keep from getting them on you.
There are various kinds of scorpions and centipedes and they are common in most tropical countries. Their sting is painful but rarely is there any serious consequence if the bite does not become infected. Spider bites may cause local pain and swelling, yet they rarely have serious results. Wasps and bees may be abundant in some places but they seldom attack unless their nests are interfered with. In the case of stings, mud packs are very helpful in obtaining relief. In some areas there are tiny bees, called sweat bees, that may collect on exposed parts of the body in enormous numbers during dry weather, especially if one is perspiring profusely. They are stingless and, until one has stopped sweating, the only thing to do is to scrape them off with the hand. Ants are a possible source of danger to men lying on the ground, especially if they are injured and unable to move. Hence care should be taken to place such persons away from ant hills or nests.
In some localities, particularly in the southeastern Asiatic area, certain butterflies collect to gather perspiration from the human body in dry weather. They are somewhat annoying, but quite harmless. The rice-borer moth in Indo-Chinese coun- tries during certain seasons of the year is attracted to lights and flres. It is a small, plain-colored moth with a pair of
TROPICAL FORESTS
75
tiny black spots on the wings. It should never be brushed off roughly as the minutely-barbed hairs of its body may be ground into the skin causing a sore much like a burn that often takes weeks to heal.
Land leeches are common in the Asiatic tropics. They are not poisonous in themselves, yet their bites may become in- fected and if not properly cared for lead to tropical ulcers or “jungle sores.” One should watch for leeches on the body and brush them off before they have had time to bite. When they have taken hold they should not be pulled off forcibly. They can be made to release themselves and drop off by putting salt on them, by touching them with a moist cud of tobacco (this is especially effective if red pepper is mixed with the tobacco), by touching them lightly with the burning end of a cigarette or a coal from the fire, or by dropping some alcohol on them. Leeches try to reach mucous membranes and frequently enter the rectum or crawl up inside the penis without attracting attention until an itching sensation begins. Urination usually removes them immediately from the penis, but medical help may be needed to remove one from the rectum. After being satiated, however, leeches frequently leave the rectum with an evacuation. This produces a certain amount of blood flow that may be mistaken for beginning dysentery, but its short duration will remove fears on that score.
Snakes and Crocodiles
The thought of snakes usually is uppermost in the minds of most people at the mention of the word “jungle.” There is no need to be unduly concerned about them, however, as you may
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go for months without seeing a snake even in areas where they may be abundant. If you do see one it will probably be a fleeting glimpse as the snake will be making every effort to get away from you and disappear in the vegetation. Your chances of being bitten by one are about on a par with those of being struck by lightning. That does not mean that you should be careless of the possibility of snake bites, but ordinary precau- tions against them are sufficient. Just be particularly watchful when clearing ground for a camp site, trail, or the like, and when roaming in the bush gathering fire wood. Many snakes are non- venomous, but the safest plan is to leave them all alone. If you should happen to be bitten don’t worry over what kind of a snake it was but go ahead and treat the bite as though it were from a venomous variety.
There are three steps that should be taken. (1) Immediately apply a tourniquet above the wound, that is, between the bite and the heart. Kelease the pressure for 5 or 10 seconds out of every 10 or 15 minutes so as not to stop circulation completely. (2) Make 4 or 5 parallel incisions, each about 2 inches long, as close to the snake bite wound as possible, and extending through the skin and fat and into the muscle. These cuts should be made with a razor, a razor blade or sharp knife, and should run lengthwise rather than across the limb. If the incisions are boldly made, bleeding and seepage of serum will be free and much of the venom will thus be eliminated. Do not place permanganate crystals in the wound . (3) Keep quiet;
take hot fluids such as tea and coffee if available. Do not take alcohol or morphine. Have your comrades get you to a doctor as quickly as possible.
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77
In some areas there are crocodiles in the streams. They can be avoided by not going into the water, or, when it is necessary to cross larger rivers, by doing so on improvised rafts. Authen- tic cases of crocodiles attacking human beings are practically impossible to find, so you don’t need to worry over that. If you should approach or attempt to kill one along the shore, however, be careful of the sweep of its tail. They can move very swiftly, and the powerful tail is strong enough to break a man’s leg.
Some of the South American streams have fish called caribe, palometa, or piranha that will attack men or animals entering the water and inflict dangerous wounds. They are infuri- ated by blood or sores but often do not attack persons without these conditions. They, too, can be avoided by staying out of streams where natives say they occur and by crossing on rafts.
Blood Worms
It is advisable to stay out of fresh water, as far as possible, in certain areas because the lakes, rivers, streams, swamps, ponds, irrigation ditches, and flooded rice fields may contain the young forms of various blood-worms or flukes. They may enter the body through the skin of bathers or persons wading in such waters, or through contaminated drinking water that has not been boiled or sufficiently treated with chlorine. The young forms of these flukes are harbored by certain kinds of fresh- water snails. When they leave the snail and are discharged into the water they die within 48 hours unless another suitable vic- tim is found. Hence water that has been stored in a container that is free of snails will be safe for washing and bathing in from 570603° — 44 Q
7-8
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SKA
48 to 72 hours, but it will not be safe to drink unless boiled or chlorinated. The danger areas for these flukes are : The northern and western coastal areas of Africa, the Belgian Congo, French Equatorial Africa from Spanish Guinea south, the Gold and Ivory Coasts, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and north to Gambia, southern Spain, Palestine, and Syria, the northern half of the Arabian Red Sea coast, Madagascar, Mauritius, and Reunion islands, China, Japan, Celebes, the islands of Hainan, Formosa, and the Philippines, all of Ecuador and a portion of northern Peru, the northern coast of South America and down the east coast to below Rio de Janeiro, and the Caribbean islands. The waters of Puerto Rico are particularly bad in this respect and should be avoided.
VI
FOOD IN THE TROPICS
ANIMALS, BIRDS, ETC.
The matter of food is one that will be extremely important. If, as previously suggested, you have made contact with the natives you will have little to worry about. However, it may be some time before you come to a settlement or meet up with any of the local inhabitants, and in that case you may be forced to make out the best that you can. It may not be pleasant to contemplate, but in an emergency you will find that many un- conventional creatures are edible and are, as a matter of fact, eaten by the people of the country. Among them are lizards and snakes. The meat from the hind quarters and tail of the lizard is the be'st. It is somewhat dry and stringy but is very much like the white meat from chicken. No lizard is poisonous, except the North American Gila monster and the beaded lizard of Mexico, although the larger ones have good biting teeth and a person should take care not to be bitten by them. All snakes are edible, but they are not found as frequently as might be expected. They also taste much like the white meat of chicken, although the flesh may be a bit stringy and slightly salty flavored. In using snakes be sure that the head is cut off immediately. It is dangerous to hold some species by the back of the head as they have the ability to throw their jaws out of joint and reach around
79
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to the hand. With both snakes and lizards, you skin, remove the viscera, and cook like any other meat.
All birds are edible, but some are not desirable. Carrion- eating birds, such as vultures should be used only in cases of last resort. They are in no way harmful, yet their usual source of food is such that it imparts an unpleasant taste to the flesh. This is often true of fish-eating birds. They are likely to have a definitely fishy flavor. Some birds, particularly parrots and hawks, are likely to be tough, but they can be stewed and used for soup. All birds’ eggs are good for food, although some may be more palatable than others. If you want to be certain of fresh eggs remove all but one from the nest and take the fresh ones as they are laid. Along the shores and particularly on the smaller islands where birds lay their eggs in great numbers a section of previously laid eggs can be cleared, the area marked, and those left there subsequently gathered and used.
Animal life differs in its distribution. In some areas there is considerable variety and individuals are fairly numerous. Other places have only a few forms and not many of each. Too much reliance should not be placed on animals as a source of food because they are difficult to find and probably will be hard to kill with the equipment at hand. If you have a rifle or a revolver you may be able to shoot enough to keep going, but often it may not be desirable to use firearms. Most of the smaller animals can be killed with clubs, may be trapped by making noose snares, constructing deadfalls of logs, or by digging pits and covering them with light branches, twigs, and leaves. Natives generally thrust sharpened split-bamboo or other sticks in the bottom of such pits to impale the animals when they fall into the hole. Such pits, of course, are placed in game trails.
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All animals are good to eat ; the flavor of some may not be all that you would desire but they are edible. Monkeys are good if you can shoot or catch them.
Should you be fortunate enough to get a sizable animal and have more meat than you can use at one time, the extra may be preserved for future use by drying. One method of making this jerked meat is to cut the flesh into long, thin strips not more than an inch in width and a half an inch in thickness. Soak these strips in brine, if salt is available to make it, an hour or two. String the strips of salt-soaked meat on the limb from a small tree and hang over a smoking fire until thoroughly dry. Where sea water or salt is not available the meat can be dried by exposure to the sun. Under such conditions the strips may be tied to long cords and thrown over a branch or some other high support, such as a line tied between two trees, where they will receive the full sun. The higher they are from the ground the less danger there is that the meat will become fly-blown before it is cured. If it is not convenient to hang the meat, it is possible to dry it on flat rocks or hot sand. In such cases, however, it must be turned from time to time so as to cure evenly and must be protected from flies, ants, and other insects.
There are other living things that also may be used as food. The white grubs of the palm weevils and other wood-infesting beetles are highly prized by many native people. Their larvae, often as big as your thumb, are found in rotting wood and around freshly cut places on palm trees. Sfclit and broiled over the coals of a fire, they are quite palatable and have a flavor somewhat like that of oysters. Natives rarely bother to cook them, preferring to pop them into their mouths as they find them. Large grasshoppers and cicadas with the legs and wings
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removed may be toasted on the end of a stick. The pupae or eggs of ants are edible but are difficult to collect in quantity. Winged termites, which migrate in great numbers during the rains, are also edible when the wings have been removed.
There are two main kinds of shrimps, often called crawfish, and a host of smaller varieties averaging about an inch in length. They can be caught in various ways. Along the larger streams in the shallow places near the shore, where water is nearly stagnant, masses of small shrimps may be found swimming about and be taken with hand nets; if you don’t have one you can make one that will do by fashioning a hoop from a shoot or small branch and interlacing strips of leaves or fibers to make the mesh. Best results are obtained by people working in pairs and standing in the water. One drives the hosts of shrimps towards the other* who dips them out with the net. In some areas the natives will dam a shallow narrow stream making a fairly watertight barrier of branches, sticks, large leaves, mud, and sand. As the section downstream runs dry, the shrimps stranded there or hiding among and beneath rotten pieces of wood, branches, leaves, in the crevices between the rocks, and among roots or other debris are collected. Fish and crabs are often obtained in the same manner at the same time. The best yield, however, comes from the bailing dry of many pools and puddles still remaining in the bottom of the stream bed. With larger pools build a mud dam across and scoop the water with your hands, if you have nothing else, out of one side until you can catch the shrimp or fish found in it. Then scoop the water back from the other side and get the rest of them. Anything that can be picked up to serve as a scoop is used to dip out the pools, or small dip nets are made on the spot for the purpose. Where
FOOD IN THE TROPICS
bushes grow along the edge of a stream and the branches droop down so that some of the twigs and leaves are in the water, large catches are sometimes made by lifting the branches out of the water and catching the shrimps as they drop off the leaves. This produces better results if it is done at night as the shrimps seem to leave the bushes during the day when they are more active. All land crabs, freshwater crabs, freshwater fish, and shrimps should be cooked before eating .
Shrimps are usually cooked by boiling. In the larger forms only the abdomen, the tail end, minus its shell, is eaten. The shell is easily removed after cooking. The small forms make good soups or stews when cooked whole, but if they form too great a part of the diet and are eaten continually over a period of time the shells may produce diarrhea. This can be avoided by straining the soups or stews before eating or by adding some other bulky food substance to it. Land and fresh-water crabs are cooked in the same way as the salt-water forms. See p. 42.
FOOD PLANTS IN THE TROPICS
Plants are one of the main sources of food in the tropics. The natives eat many wild and cultivated plants that are unknown to white men not familiar with the different areas where they grow. It is not possible to name and describe all of the forms suitable for emergency or general use but a few of the more common and obvious ones, those readily identified, are discussed in the following pages. One rule that can be relied upon is that whatever the monkeys eat is safe for human beings. Monkeys are not present everywhere, although they do occur in many of the places where you may go. Birds are more widely distributed but
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they are not a safe guide as they will occasionally feed on things harmful to man.
Food plants are more abundant in some localities than others and your chances of finding them vary according to the nature of the place where you are forced to look for them. Seashores, abandoned clearings, margins of streams, and swamps are more likely places than deep tropical jungles or mountain tops. The best places to find food plants, of course, are those where men are or have been growing them. In cultivated regions you can depend upon the natives for food, if you have made the proper contacts in the manner already described in the discussion of natives (chapter IV, p. 53). Where there are no natives you will have to fall back on your own resourcefulness.
Plants Along Seashores
In many cases the need for emergency food plants may arise along a seashore. As a general rule such places are better supplied in that respect than other locations. This is in part because of the fact that in less civilized regions the people tend to live near the sea and as a consequence there are numerous cultivated plants, although they actually may not longer be cared for, as well as various wild forms. Many of the sandy, tropical shores have plants which are found all over the world. Coconuts and other palms (Fig. 16) characteristically line many tropical coasts. The many uses of the coconut have already been described in the section on Island Survival (p. 31), and need not be repeated. Other kinds of palms are also a valuable source of food. The tender growing tips, usually found at the tops of the stems in the bases of the leaves, may be cut out and eaten
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85
Figure 17.- — Sago palm. See p. 87.
FOOD IN THE TROPICS
raw or roasted. These are what are commonly called palm 4 ‘cabbages” (Fig. 17). To get at them' you may have to use the “climbing bandage” described in connection with obtaining coco- nuts. You may find that some of these “cabbages” are too bitter to be eaten, but none of them is harmful. The tender, unopened flower clusters of palms may also be eaten and the immature seeds of the fruits of some forms are edible, although you will find most of them unpalatable. The juice which drips from the cut end of the flower or fruit cluster, or from the end of a small branch or from a gash in the trunk, will quench thirst if caught and drunk immediately. When permitted, it ferments.
Several of the Old World palms, particularly the Sago (fig. 17) , have a pithy center that contains starch which can be extracted for use as a substitute for rice or for the making of pastries. The process for obtaining this material is so involved, however, that one should depend on the natives for it or, if possible, have the natives show you how to prepare it. None of the New World palms provides this starch.
Another tree commonly found is the screw pine or pandanus (Fig. 9). It is easily recognized by its stilt-like roots and the spiral arrangement of its long leaves. It has a large fruit di- vided into sections like a pineapple. These sections are cov- ered with a hard husk that encloses the fleshy, edible pulp and the seeds. The seeds may be roasted and eaten like chestnuts; the fleshy portion may be boiled or baked. Boiling is better for the young fruits, baking for the mature ones. In some cases the natives strip off the outer rind with the seeds and then pound the flesh of the fruits into a dust resembling snuff. This dust is exposed to the sun until a sweet juice exudes making the whole mass sticky. This mass is then rolled and
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Figure 18. — Breadfruit, A. seedless, B. type with seeds. See p. 89
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patted into broad flat cakes which are rolled up and tightly wrapped and tied in dry leaves. In this fashion the food may be kept for some time. Remember that water also can be ob- tained by tapping the tops of the roots of the screw pine.
The breadfruit tree (Fig. 18), commonly planted by the Pacific islanders and in tropical America, also may be found along or near the shore. The tree attains a moderate height, and has large glossy leaves. The fruit is attached to the small branches by a short thick stalk and hangs either singly or in clusters of two or three together. It is oval or spheroid in shape, is ap- proximately 6 inches in diameter, and has a rind with a warty surface. There are many different varieties ripening at dif- ferent times of year providing an almost constant supply. The fruit usually is baked in hot embers, in pits filled with hot rocks and covered with palm leaves, or is boiled or cut into slices and fried like potatoes. Sometimes the natives cook the fruit and cut it into slices, dry them in the sun or in an oven, and keep them for future use. They can be eaten without further prep- aration, may be toasted, or be ground up and cooked in vari- ous ways with other substances.
Throughout Polynesia and to some extent in Malaysia is a small or medium-sized tree growing from 8 to 10 or up to 20 feet in height called the Polynesian chestnut (Fig. 19). It grows especially along the shores and bears pods which contain a single large seed that provides excellent food when boiled or roasted. It is even better than the chestnuts which we formerly obtained from Italy. It is necessary to boil or roast the nuts to remove the tannin which they contain. There are other trees similar to chestnuts with fruits varying from those with a hull as spiny as that of n chestnut to those with a hull that is merely rough
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FOOD IN THE TROPICS
91
like that of a walnut. The nuts are obtained by breaking open this outer covering. In all cases they should be boiled or roasted.
Vines bearing edible fruits occur along many shores. In- cluded in these are forms of the grape, gourd, and melon. One common example is the strainer vine which bears elongated green fruits that are edible when half ripe provided they are cooked. The tender shoots, leaves, and flowers of this vine also are edible. The so-called balsam vine has rough, yellow fruits about 6 inches long of varying form and with reddish pulp that may be eaten.
The purslane, previously mentioned as a source of moisture in the discussion of water on Islands (p. 33), is also edible in the form of greens.
Another plant found on or near the shore is the Polynesian arrowroot (Fig. 20), which has a potato-like underground tuber that can be eaten after it has been boiled or roasted but which must not be consumed in its raw state as it contains poisonous elements that are destroyed by cooking.
If you have the misfortune to land along a shore bordered by mangrove swamps do not waste your time trying to fight your way through or looking for food in them. Try and work your way along the coast to a better beach or more open type of vegetation. In some cases a few screw pines may be found growing in such swamps and there are ferns that may be eaten as greens, but otherwise mangrove swamps have little plant food. Of course, if you find yourself in such a place make the best of it and try to get to the coast as quickly as possible.
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Figure 20. — Polynesian arrowroot ; must be cooked. See p. 93U
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98
Clearings and Abandoned Fields
0
These are the best places to find food plants because they generally have been cultivated at some time or other and culti- vated forms of plants will persist long after fields have been abandoned. These places may occur along the shore or be found in the interior of the country. Nearly all of the fruits found there can be eaten. It is not possible or practicable to list all that you might find under such circumstances but there usually will be bananas and plantains. Ripe bananas are rarely found because the birds, bats, insects, and other creatures usually get to them first, but the green ones are edible when cooked. They may be boiled, fried, or roasted. Of course, you can pick a green bunch and let the fruit ripen but that takes time. The plantains, which you probably can’t tell from bananas and it doesn’t really matter anyway, are generally dark green, brown, or orange in color and will seem like green bananas. They should always be cooked. The flower buds and the tender growing tip at the upper end of the stem of these trees are also edible. Ripe bananas may be preserved by slicing them and then drying the pieces in the sun.
The papaya (Fig. 21) also occurs around clearings and former habitations in the tropics. This is a tree-like plant growing up to 20 feet in height with a single stem and a tuft of long-stalked leaves at the top. On the stem below or among the leaves grow large melon-like fruits resembling elongated cantaloupes or musk- melons. The fruits are green before ripening. On reaching maturity they become yellowish green or yellow and squash-like. The flesh is pepsin flavored and truly delicious. The milky juice of the unripe fruits contains a substance that is an aid to diges- 4 570603°: — 14 7
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'Figure 21. — Papaya. Small tree. See p. 93.
FOOD IN THE TROPICS
95
tion and if rubbed onto a piece of tough meat it has the property of making it tender. If this milky juice oozes from the rind when it is cut the fruit is not ripe enough to eat. The juice should not be allowed to remain on the skin, because it will set up an irritation. Green fruit may be placed in the sun where it will ripen in a very short time. Do not attempt to climb a papaya as the wood in it is so brittle that it is liable to snap under a man’s weight. The trunk can be severed by a single blow from a machete. You should be careful not to get any of the milky sap, either from the stem or the rind of the fruit, into your eyes as it will cause intense pain and temporary, sometimes even permanent, blindness. The flower, leaf steams, and young leaves may be eaten cooked as greens provided you cook them in several changes of water to remove the bitter taste and harm- ful substance from the sap.
Mango trees are often found in abandoned clearings and around deserted village sites in the East Indies and southern Asia. The delicious fruit that they bear is somewhat larger than a baseball. It is elliptic or round and somewhat flattened in shape (Fig. 22). The leathery rind, yellow or greenish in color and somewhat spotted, encloses the edible pulp that clings closely around a i single, large, and flattened seed. The fruits ripen from early summer through early autumn.
A common tree found on abandoned plantations in South America, as well as in the Pacific area, is the cashew (Fig. 23), the nuts of which are popular in the United States. The nuts are not edible until boiled or roasted, and all of the oil must be heated out of them before they are eaten. When boiling or roasting, avoid the steam or smoke as it is very caustic. The greatly swollen base, reddish or yellowish in
96 SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
Figure 22. — Mango. Medium to large tree. Cultivated or wild.
See p. 95.
FOOD IN THE TROPICS
97
Figure 23. — Cashew ; nuts must be cooked. See p, 95.
Figure 24. — Bamboo sprouts. Slit covering of husks lengthwise, remove
tender center. See p. 99.
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99
color, on which the nnt grows, however, is juicy and refreshing when fresh.
Bamboo and sugarcane are commonly present in formerly occupied areas. Young bamboo sprouts (Fig. 24), up to a foot or so in height, are stored with food substances and can either be eaten raw or be cooked by boiling. Sugarcane (Fig. 25)
Figure 25. — Sugarcane.
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roughly resembles corn with reddish stems, has its leaves near the top and has no “ears.” The outer layer of the stems may be peeled off and the inside pith chewed to get the refreshing and nourishing sweet sap.
A coarse grass found in clearings, abandoned fields, and forest borders in Polynesia and Malaysia has seeds that may be boiled or roasted. The hearts from the young shoots of this grass may also be eaten.
Vegetables are also found in these locations. They include the taro, sweet potatoes, yams and in tropical America wild tomatoes. The taro (Pig. 26) grows to a height of 2 or 3 feet, has large heartshaped leaves and yellowish-green flowers. All parts of the plant may be eaten, but its roots are the main source of food and they are used throughout the Pacific Island area. The root is naturally bitter or pungent in taste; yet after roasting or boiling it is perfectly wholesome. After cooking the roots the natives usually peel them, pound them into a powder, then gradually add water, kneading the mass as they proceed, until it attains a dough-like consistency. It is then wrapped in leaves and eaten at will.
Sweet potatoes are easily recognized as they look like morn- ing glory vines. When in bloom the blossoms are pink. The potatoes are better if cooked, although they may be eaten raw, and the tops of the plants make good greens when boiled. Many other morning-glory-like vines have edible shoots and leaves and may have edible roots. None is poisonous. Yams have climbing vines with a slender stem and simple leaves resembling an open human hand. They have small, incon- spicuous green flowers. Their tubers are usually long and spindle shaped, some attaining a length of from 2 to 4 feet.
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101
CULTIVATED , WET GROUND
GROUND
EDIBLE COOKED
Figure 26. — Taro, roots must be cooked. See p. 100.
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They may be baked or boiled. In baking these tubers the natives dig a pit, put in large hard rocks and build a fire. When the rocks are hot the food is placed in the pit, on green leaves, and the hole is covered with palm or other large leaves. Earth is sometimes heaped over the leaves. After half an hour or so, depending on the number of stones and how thoroughly they were heated, the food is ready to eat.
Figure 27. — Cassava, or tapioca. See p. 103.
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103
Another common vegetable is the cassava, manioc, or tapioca (Fig. 27). The large roots of these plants should be used with caution as there are two varieties, one sweet and the other bitter. They can only be distinguished by taste. The sweet form may be eaten raw but the bitter form is poisonous unless it is cooked. The natives remove this poisonous sub- stance by crushing the roots thoroughly, washing the starchy mass with several changes of water, and then cooking it. If you are in a region where you can learn how it should be prepared, do so, as the knowledge might prove helpful later on.
Peanuts may often be found in clearings as they are culti- vated in many tropical and semitropical areas by the natives. The fruits are borne below the surface of the ground and their seeds are very nourishing. They may be eaten raw or cooked. Pineapples also occur in abandoned fields.
Many common temperate zone breeds are found in clearings in the tropics. They also are edible. Among these is the purslane previously mentioned (p. 91) and the pokeweed (Fig. 28). The tender, young shoots of the latter may be cooked as greens. The roots, however, are definitely poisonous. The ground cherry or Chinese lantern plant (Fig. 29) has escaped from cultivation and become a weed almost throughout the tropics. Its bladdery pods contain a single red tomato-like fruit that is edible.
Raspberries, blackberries, and mulberries are sometimes found at higher elevations. They look sufficiently like the forms you are familiar with at home to be recognized. All are edible or at least harmless. Some of them may be too seedy to be palatable, but they won’t hurt you.
104
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
LARGE.WEED OP
TROPICAL REGIONS.
FLOWER, SMALL.
THRU
FRUIT
SEEDS
PURPLISH, JUICY PULP BITTER BUT HARMLESS
Figure 28.- — Pokeweed. Tender shoots eaten as greens. Root
poisonous. See p. 103.
105
FOOD IN THE TROPICS
Open Grassland, Thin Woods, and Thickets
There are large areas in the tropics which are only sparsely covered with vegetation consisting for the most part of grasses and a few scattered trees. Some of these areas are the result of the destruction of the original vegetation by cultivation or by fires. They are often quite dry. Various grasses are found in these open spaces and as there are no poisonous grasses any that are found may be eaten without danger. In fact, most of man’s cultivated food comes from grasses such as wheat, rye, corn, sugarcane, etc. Heal grasses can be recognized by their jointed stems, such as in a cornstalk, and by their character- istic flowers which are never conspicuously colored. Because their seeds fall off readily after ripening they are generally difficult to gather. Also their seeds usually need to be ground into some kind of flour and cooked before being eaten. One form of grass, however, has fairly large, usually white and shiny, beadlike “fruits” called Job’s Tears. These contain several seeds that can be eaten either boiled or roasted. This plant is some- times cultivated.
A small tree — up to 20 feet in height — that grows in open and waste places, as well as in cultivated fields, in the Old World is the horseradish tree (Fig. 30). The leaves, shoots, and young pods of this tree may be eaten raw, or when cooked as greens. The seeds may be roasted. The roots of the tree taste like horseradish.
River and Stream Margins
Because of their variability, tropical streams are bordered by a large number of potential food plants. In the Far East the
106
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
Figure 29. — Chinese lantern, or ground cherry ; 2 to 3 feet high.
See p. 103.
FOOD IN THE TROPICS
107
Figure 30. — Horseradish tree. See p. 105.
lotus and various water lilies (Fig. 31) and other plants with large, fleshy, edible roots are often found growing in water. Floating on the surface may be the water hyacinth, a plant that
108
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
is about one foot in height and has blue flowers and inflated leaf stems. The young leaves, leafy stalks, and the flowering parts may be eaten in an emergency, either steamed or boiled.
In the soft mud along the banks of streams, along the edges of ditches, and also in abandoned rice fields, is a plant called the arrowhead, which has an underground stem or tuber that is edible when cooked. Other water plants also grow in such places and all parts of them can be eaten when cooked as greens. Ferns growing in such places also may be used as food. The young shoots are better and may be eaten raw or when cooked as greens. (See fig. 32.) Of course, many of the trees and other forms of plants already described, bamboos, bananas, palms, etc. may be found along the streams as well as in the other locations mentioned.
Rice sometimes escapes from cultivation and may be found growing wild along the banks of streams and ditches.
Swamps
Swamps often occur along rivers and smaller streams, as well as along the coasts, and some food plants are to be found there. Edible ferns occur in fresh water swamps. The wild form of the Chinese water chestnut (Fig. 33) is often found in the open fresh- water swamps of the Old World. Its nearly round, hard tubers are produced underground. They are ex- cellent when boiled or roasted. Another plant that grows in fresh-water swamps and swampy places more or less in the open has very large leaves and stalks more or less covered with short spines (Fig. 34). It has a large underground part that is rich in starch, but it should be eaten only after it is
FOOD IN THE TROPICS
109
PINK FLOWER
WRAPPING MATERIAL
SEEDS
EDIBLE
6RFEN
Figure 31. — Lotus ; water lily lower right. See p. 107.
570603° — 44 — —8
110 SURVIVAL OK LAKD AND SEA
Figure 32. — Paco fern. See p. 108.
112 SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
thoroughly cooked, either by boiling or roasting. A vine re- sembling the morning glory or the sweet potato frequently may be found in fresh-water swamps and ponds. The stems and young leaves of this plant make good greens when cooked.
Salt water or brackish swamps are very extensive in the tropics along rivers near the sea and along the coasts. As previously mentioned, relatively few kinds of edible plants are to be found in such locations. The swamps along the rivers, however, do have nipa palms — a tree that has no trunk, its leaves rising in tufts around the “cabbage” just above the sur- face of the swamp — -that produce dense clusters of erect fruits, the immature seeds of which are edible. Nipa palm swamps often occur on the inland side of mangrove swamps. A climb- ing fern and a coarse tufted fern may be found in both kinds of swamps. These ferns are edible.
Forests and Jungles
Edible plants are generally less abundant in deep forests and jungles than in the locations discussed in the preceding pages. Those that are present often bear their fruits and other edible portions high out of reach. Palms are common but you may have to climb to reach the “cabbage.” Tree ferns with tender, coiled, young leaves and edible terminal buds may be found. The climbing palms or rattans (Pig. 14) have edible terminal shoots, although they may be high in the tree tops.
The Durian (Fig. 35) is a large forest tree that bears excellent fruits about the size of a coconut. They are readily recognized by their odor which is very strong and fetid, and has been # likened to that coming from decayed onions. The fruit is round
FOOD IN THE TROPICS
113
Figure 34. — Palau ; root must be cooked. See p. 108.
114
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
Figure 35. — Durian fruit, found on a large, tropical-forest tree.
See p. 112.
FOOD IN THE TROPICS
115
or slightly oval, green in color, and is covered with short, stout, sharp spines that make it difficult to pick up if the stem is broken oft. The outer rind is so thick and tough that it never breaks when it falls. It can be opened with a heavy knife by cutting along the five grooves which run from end to end beneath the spines. The cream-colored yellow pulp surrounding the few seeds is best when the fruits first fall from the tree. It is eaten raw, especially when ripe, but when unripe may be cooked as a vegetable. Despite its foul odor, the fruit is very nourishing. These trees can often be located by following the odor radiated in all directions from the fruit lying on the ground. The seeds from the fruit may be roasted and eaten like nuts. Because the fruits are so large and so covered with spines they might kill a man if they fell on him. Consequently one should not lie under a durian tree.
There are many kinds of fig trees, shrubs, or vines in jungles. They are recognizable by their milky juice and fig-like fruits. These fruits are generally smaller than domestic dried figs. They usually are round with a more or less hollow center con- taining numerous small “seeds” and a small opening at the end. This opening may be pressed shut when the fruit is ripe. Most of these fruits contain small insects but they are edible unless decayed. When infested with insect larvae it probably would be better to boil them before eating. There are other forest trees with edible fruits but they are difficult to identify even if they can be reached. The fruit can be tested by eating a small sample and then waiting some hours to see if harmful results develop before trying larger amounts. If it tastes bitter or produces a burning sensation in the mouth don’t eat it
116
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
Particular Regions
Most of the information in preceding pages applies more spe- cifically to Polynesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines than to other areas. Over so vast an area the various plants differ from place to place, but nowhere is there any need to suffer from hunger if a person will keep his eyes open and do a little experimenting. In the mountains of New Guinea, Java, and the Philippines the vegetation is less tropical than in other parts of the area, hence the food plants will be less tropical in character. In these regions, however, one can learn readily from the natives.
Throughout Siam and Indo-China, countries sometimes in- cluded in Malaysia, there are the usual tropical plants and in addition true spine-covered chestnuts, some oaks with edible acorns, and a few wild apples and peaches. The common bracken fern of temperate regions, with tender uncoiling edible leaves, occurs there and the same kind of mulberries found in North America are present. In addition there is a forest tree called the longan (Fig. 36) which bears clusters of yellowish or yellow- ish-brown, smooth fruits that are delicious. The Chinese lychee or “China Nut” tree (Fig. 37) grows wild in the area. Wild rela- tives of the orange and grapefruit are also found.
In tropical America there are many kinds of types of plants similar to those in Malaysia. These include palms, figs, papayas, bamboo, and bananas. Cashews abound along the roadsides and in overgrown fields. Wild tomatoes with small edible . fruits grow nearly everywhere. In northern South America the cow or milk tree yields a drinkable sap when the bark is cut. The cassava or tapioca is abundant but the bitter form is more common and must be prepared as previously suggested
FOOD IN THE TROPICS
117
Figure 36. — Longan tree. Large cultivated or forest tree. See p. 116,
118
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
SMALL
FRUIT
TREES
CLUSTER
OF
FLOWERS &4**
FLOWERS
VERY
SMALL
FRUITS RESEMBLE STRAWBERRIES WITH THIN OUTER RSNDj PULP EDIBLE.
Fig uks 37.- — Lychee, or “China Nut.” See p. 116.
FOOD IN THE TROPICS
119
before eating. In tlie drier places there are various kinds of cactus plants. Their fruits and fleshy stem segments are edible raw or cooked provided the numerous spines are carefully re- moved. Some of the larger, rounder forms have stored water use- ful in quenching thirst. The mango grows wild in Central Amer- ica and parts of the West Indies and their fruits are available from May to August or somewhat later.
In tropical Africa there are dense, lowland jungles and drier plateaus with more open vegetation. The same types of plants, although different forms, occur here as elsewhere in the tropics and are prepared and eaten in about the same manner. There is no lack of emergency food plants in that area.
POISONOUS PLANTS
There is no reason to fear the poisonous plants in the Tropics any more than in temperate regions. The best general rule is to avoid all those with a milky sap, with the exception of the numerous varieties of the wild fig, and all those whose taste is disagreeable, or that have brightly colored shiny seeds.
Poisonous plants fall into three general classes :
(1) those which poison a person internally when eaten;
(2) those with sap that irritates the skin in the manner of poison ivy ;
(3) those with minute needles or spines that penetrate the skin and cause irritation.
Identification of such plants by persons not familiar with tropical vegetation is difficult. If one has an opportunity to do so it is best to learn the various kinds that are to be avoided from the natives. Otherwise just be careful about touching or
Figure 38. — Pliysic nut ; seeds poisonous to eat. See p. 122.
FOOD IN THE TROPICS 121
Figure 39. — Castor bean ; seeds poisonous to eat. Cannot be substituted
for castor oil. See p. 122.
122
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
grabbing plants at random. Testing unknown plants by small samples usually will reveal the harmless ones without causing serious injury.
Widespread throughout most of the Tropics are the physic nut (Fig. 38) and the castor oil plant (Fig. 39). The seeds of both are poisonous to eat and cooking will not make them harmless . Strychnine comes from the seeds of an orange-like shrub (fig. 40) that grows in both the New and Old World tropics. The fruit may be eaten but not the seed. The fruit is so bitter, however, that you probably wouldn’t eat it even if you found it.
Juices causing skin irritation are more common. Throughout Malaysia are the rengas trees (Fig. 41). They are avoided by the natives as carefully as we avoid poison ivy. The affliction produced by the sap of these trees is similar to that produced by poison ivy and the treatment for it is the same. A few of the, wild or semi-wild forms of mango also have poisonous sap, although the common mango does not, but the fruits from these trees can be eaten with safety. In the New World tropics the Mancineel or Manzanillo (Fig. 42), a small tree that occurs in dense thickets along sea beaches, is avoided for the same reason. The poisonous sandbox tree (Fig. 43) occurs at low altitudes throughout most of tropical America. It is a small tree with short, sharp grater-like spines and a melon-like fruit. A com- mon American plant with a poisonous milky sap is the Dumb Cane (Fig. 44) which is found in low ground and on moist hills. Its soft juicy stems are as large as a man’s arm and have a skunk-like odor when cut. Smoke and steam from the burning wood or leaves of any of these plants is dangerous and is as likely to affect the skin as the actual sap or juice.
FOOD IN THE TROPICS
123
SEED
SEED. SIDE AMD EDGE VIEWS.
TREES.SHRUBS OR VINES.
FRUITS LIKE SMALL ORANGES SHELL-LIKE RIND
Figdke 40. — Strychnine ; seeds poisonous to eat. See p. 122.
124
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
Figure 41. — Rengas tree ; poisonous to touch. See p. 122,
FOOD m THE TROPICS
m
If you get the juice from any of these plants on your skin, wash it off as quickly as possible, gently but thoroughly, with soap and warm water. Thereafter wash the affected part as seldom as possible and apply vaseline or olive oil twice daily and keep 570603° — 44 9
126
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
/<3av€3
q rows os a /nz<g /QOfezt high
Jeecf
^ rOnf & ,5/c/e wifiv d// f>47/7^s'
Figure 43. — -Sandbox tree ; sap poisonous to skin. See p. 122.
FOOD m THE TROPICS
128
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
Figure 45. — Various forms of cowhage, dangerous to touch. All
temporarily irritating. See p. 130.
FOOD IN THE TROPICS 129
Figure 46. — Nettle tree, dangerous to touch. See p. 130,
130
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
the place covered with a thin layer of cloth. Care should be taken not to infect such places, as ulcers may result.
The third group comprises the nettles and plants with stinging- hairs on their flowers and fruits. An examble of the latter is the cowhage (Fig. 45) that occurs in most tropical areas growing as a vine in thickets and wooded districts but not in the jungles. The stinging nettles are widespread but are little worse than those in temperate climates. There are nettle trees (Fig. 46) that are found in thickets, clearing and open woods. They should be avoided whenever possible. Treatment of irrita- tion caused by these plants is similar to that for the plants with the poisonous sap or juices.
POLLUTED PLANT FOODS
Far more dangerous than any of the poisonous tropical plants are those which — although in themselves perfectly harmless — carry the germs of disease. In all inhabited areas in the Tropics the danger of contracting disease through the eating of con- taminated food is ever present. Germs are left on fruits and vegetables when they are handled. Vegetables frequently are contaminated by the earth in which they are grown because in many countries the fields and garden plots are fertilized with human dung which, of course, carries the germs of the ailments from which the natives suffer and provides a ready source of reinfection. Fruits and vegetables should be eaten raw only when they are peeled or the outer surface is cut off with a knife by the person eating them. Even then care must be taken not to reinfect the freshly exposed portions. Vegetables and plants found in abandoned clearings may be contaminated from the
FOOD m THE TROPICS
131
soil. Even though appearances suggest that the place has not been occupied for some time, you should be on your guard and prepare your food as carefully as though people were actually living there. Thorough cooking kills all disease germs; hence to be safe you should cook all vegetables. This is good pro- tection against dysentery, cholera, and diarrhea. If flies are present the food should be protected from them, as they can reinfect it after it is cooked.
YII
THE ARCTIC
There are no large sections of the American Arctic in which Eskimos, Indians, or white men have not lived. These people have not been stranded or forced there, but have lived there by choice, and usually without hardship. Though you need not be an expert woodsman or know all the tricks an Eskimo knows, some knowledge of how others have lived in these regions will be of great assistance to you in an emergency.
There are three principal requirements for survival in the Arctic: (1) knowledge of the country, (2) suitable clothing and equipment, (3) calm judgment and knowledge of what to do.
Learn in advance all you can from maps, descriptions, or the experience of others about the region you are in or are likely to visit. Familiarize yourself with the exact location of settle- ments or camps in relation to coasts, rivers, lakes, or other prominent landmarks. Obtain all the information you can about foot travel and living conditions in winter and summer in the regions where you might some day be stranded. Learn what food resources — animals, fish, birds, plants — you are likely to find along the coasts, in the forested sections, or on the tundra.
When stranded in unfamiliar territory, whether forced down in a plane or shipwrecked, your first thought will be for the care and comfort of any who may be injured. You should next consider what action on your part will lead to rescue in the 132
THE ARCTIC
133
shortest time. If you have been forced down from an airplane in the interior, stay by the plane unless you have definite knowl- edge of the location of a camp or settlement and know that you can reach it in a short time. If you start off at random you will be in much greater danger than if you stay where you are. Searching planes will not be able to see you and almost certainly you will become hopelessly lost. On the other hand, the grounded plane will be easily visible from the air and if you establish a camp nearby and build a fire as a signal, your chances of rescue are good. If there is not too much wind, the smoke from a good fire will be visible for ten miles or more. As an additional means of attracting tbe attention of planes, spruce branches should be arranged on the snow to form letters a hundred feet across or more. Fire your signal pistol only when planes are heard approaching.
In the north, native villages and camps as well as white settle- ments are generally found along the coasts. Therefore, if you are stranded on a beach your chances of rescue are good. However, if there are rivers that cannot be crossed or if for any other reason it is not practicable to set out on foot along the coast, the best procedure will be to select a suitable camping place, build a smudge fire and await rescue. Wood for the fire- — driftwood or growing timber-will almost certainly be available, and the chances are that food also can be obtained with little difficulty.
For winter travel back from the coast, snowshoes of some sort are usually essential. These can be improvised after a fashion from flat airplane or boat parts. The natives, in a pinch, use fiat spruce boughs lashed onto their feet. Stick to the ridges or streams where the wind-blown snow is thin, wherever
134
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
possible. In the spring and fall the snow may be soft in the daytime but form a crust at night which will permit easier travel.
SIGNAL FIRE
Several packages of matches in waterproof containers, a lighter, and candles are among the most necessary items of your equipment ; some should be carried in your pockets and some in the emergency kit. It is much better to take this simple precau- tion than to be forced later to the difficult and uncertain expedient of making fire by primitive methods. This warning is partic- ularly applicable to those who may be lost in the Arctic where snow in winter and rain and mist in summer may make it difficult to obtain suitable dry materials for producing fire.
In order to conserve your supply of matches, light a candle to start the fire. Dry birch bark shredded into strips makes excellent kindling. Use this with wood shavings or dead twigs from standing trees to start the fire. In wet weather dry fuel can be obtained by cutting into the inner wood of a standing dead tree or the under surface of a fallen dead tree not resting entirely on the ground. When the fire is burning well put on green spruce boughs to make a dense smoke.
Outside the forested areas the best fuel is driftwood. This is usually abundant on northern beaches, though it is scarce in some localities in the central Canadian Arctic and in the west- ern Aleutians. It may also be found, though in smaller quanti- ties, along lake shores and rivers in the interior, even in the so- called Barren Grounds. If driftwood is not to be had, dwarf or ground willow (Fig. 48) will provide an acceptable substitute.
THE ARCTIC
135
SCALE LIKE
LEAVES, VERY SMALL.
Figure 47. — Cassiope, and evergreenlike plant good for fuel. See p. 136.
136
SURVIVAL, ON LAND AND SEA
It grows in protected spots in most parts of the Arctic. In winter it is sometimes found exposed on bare windswept hills or in gullies. The roots will burn as well as the branches. In some varieties of ground willow the roots are more extensive than the branches, and when dead and exposed on the surface of the ground make very good fuel. In the Barren Grounds west of Hudson Bay where there is no driftwood and little willow, the Eskimos depend almost entirely on Cassiope, a kind of heather, for fuel. This is a low’, spreading, evergreen plant with tiny leaves and white bell-shaped flowers (Fig. 47). It grows from 4 to 12 inches high and contains so much resin that it will burn even when green or wet. To get it burning well, however, some dry kindling such as wood shavings or moss and a good breeze are required. Dry moss and lichen (plants that grow on the rocks or bark of trees) can also be used as fuel. All these fuels — moss, lichen, heather, and willow — can be dug from beneath the snow if necessary.
EMERGENCY FIRE MAKING
If matches or a lighter are not available and there is no dry wood suitable for making a bow’ drill such as is described and illustrated on page 69, fire can be made by the strike-a-light method with flint and steel. Better than flint is iron pyrites, known as ‘Tool’s gold,” a yellowish mineral found in lumps along Arctic stream beds. A piece of pyrites and steel or flint, or two pieces of pyrites, when struck together will give a good shower of sparks; this method of fire making is employed by most of the interior Eskimos and northern Indians. The flint or steel should be struck against the pyrites, not violently but with a sharp scraping motion. For making fire in this way a
137
THE ARCTIC
SINGLE
FLOWER
W CLUSTER OF FLOWERS
Figure 48. — Arctic or dwarf willow. Low slirufo. See pp. 1§4*
138, and 155.
138
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
soft, dry, powdery tinder must be used. In an emergency cloth can be unravelled and shredded. Very dry dead grass, cedar or birch bark, or moss may be used, but it must be finely shred- ded or pulverized. The best tinder— the kind used by the Barren Ground and Arctic coast Eskimos — is the fluffy down of the “cotton grass” that grows on the tundra in summer, or the fuzz from the drooping flowers or buds of the Arctic w’illow (Fig. 48) . When a spark has ignited the tinder it must be blown gently to produce a flame. To make the tinder more inflammable, the Eski- mos sprinkle on it a small amount of gunpowder or powdered charcoal from charred sticks.
SHELTER
If stranded in deep snow without equipment, a trench can be dug to a depth of several feet and the floor packed down by stamping until it is solid. The top of the trench can then be covered with a parachute or whatever may be available. Such a shelter breaks the wind for its occupants. Northern Indians when unable to get back to their camp or village often burrow a sleeping hole into the side of a snow bank. A breathing hole should be left open and one should be on the watch and ready to move if deep drifts form. The Indians also make a snow’ house by piling up a heap of snow about the size of a small haystack, patting down the surface with their snowshoes. After standing for about 30 minutes, in very cold weather, the outer surface freezes into a thin crust which makes a good roof when the pile of snow is hollowed out. To do this they tunnel into one side of the heap, one man passing the snow' out to the others, until only a shell some or so inches thick is left. The snow floor is packed and, when possible covered with spruce boughs. It is important to have an air hole at the top and at
THE ARCTIC
139
least a small crack where the door is covered by a block of snow, ice, or other object. Otherwise those inside might suffocate. Such a shelter, if properly made, will hold several people comfort- ably. The Eskimos make a more elaborate snow-block house, but this calls for considerable skill and the method of construc- tion should be learned from the natives themselves.
In timbered country it is easy to make a comfortable shelter in the form of the lean-to described for the tropics (p. 64). Only instead of coconut or similar leaves you will have spruce boughs. Cover the three sides of the framework with overlap- ping rows of flat spruce boughs, beginning at the bottom and laid with their tips downward. Place several layers of spruce boughs inside the shelter to form a floor. Have the open side of the shelter face the fire and away from the prevailing wind.
If timber is not available a wall of snow* can be made for a windbreak. If a tent is used in open country it should not be placed under a cliff or in the lee of any large sheltering object, for snow may drift down and bury it. It will be well, however, to build a snow wall on the windward side to protect the tent from wind and drifting snow. If the wall is built close to the tent there will be no danger from snow drifts.
In pitching the tent the snow should be removed from the inside and replaced by a layer of grass, moss, or boughs to prevent the sleeping bags or other bedding from becoming wet. Where the snow is deep it can be stamped down to make a firm floor which can be covered with boughs or whatever materials are available. Sleeping bags should not rest against the tent walls.
CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING
If a tent or other closed shelter is used, it must be carefully ventilated. A fire of any kind burning in a closed and poorly ventilated space may produce carbon monoxide, a deadly poison-
140
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
ous gas. This gas has no odor and can kill a person before its presence is suspected. A slight headache or feeling of pressure at the temples is the only warning of carbon monoxide poisoning, but even this may not be felt. To prevent the gas from forming, make certain that the tent or hut has a hole at the apex and that some air can come in from below. If partly overcome by the gas, one should get into the open air immediately, keep warm, and avoid all exercise or exertion for some time afterwards.
COOKING
For cooking, the fire should not be too large. If possible it should be built between two logs or stones on which the cooking utensils may rest. Another method is to suspend the pot over the fire from a pole, the lower end of which is stuck into the ground.
Boiling is the simplest and most practical method of cooking. Long boiling is not necessary. If meat is cut into small pieces and put in cold water it will be cooked sufficiently by the time the water has boiled a couple of minutes. Drink the water in which the meat is cooked.
If snow is used for cooking, place a small amount of it in the pot at first, adding more as it melts. If the pot is crammed full Gf soft, spongy snow this may act as a blotter, absorbing the first water that melts and allowing the bottom of the pot to burn. This may be avoided by tipping the pot.
If you have no pot the simplest method of cooking meat is to broil thin strips over hot coals, holding them on the forked end of a long stick. Larger pieces can be stuck on a stick and suspended over the fire, turning them from time to time.
THE ARCTIC
141
WATER
Drinking water is not a fundamental problem in tbe [North. In summer water can be obtained from streams, lakes, or ponds. On the tundra pond water may have the color of teai because of stain from grass roots and other plants, but it is good to drink.
In winter, snow and ice are melted for drinking. Whenever possible avoid eating snow or ice directly for it lowers body temperature and cuts down endurance.
On the sea you can obtain good drinking water from old sea ice. Young sea ice is salty, like the water from which it was formed, but after a year it loses its salt and becomes fresh. Old sea ice can be distinguished by its smooth rounded corners and bluish color. Young sea ice is rougher and milky gray in color. In summer drinking water can be obtained from pools in the old sea ice. Avoid pools near the edge of the floe where saltwater spray may have blown in.
FOOD
Living off the country is not difficult in the North if one has or can make the necessary weapons or other means for killing or capturing land animals and fish. In the summer, shellfish can be collected along the shore. Fish are abundant in fresh water lakes, streams, and in the sea. Caribou and other land mammals may be found, and millions of ducks, geese and smaller birds come to breed on the tundra or the sea-cliffs. Since the sea freezes over in the winter and most of the birds go south, food resources then are more limited, and specialized hunting technioues are necessary.
570603°— 44 10
142 SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
I-P-Edible shellfish.
(I. is sometimes poisonous south of the Aleutians.)
On the Seashore
In figure 49 are shown a few of the many edible varieties of clams, mussels and other shellfish found in the far North.
THE ARCTIC
143
Most of them live in fairly shallow water. Edible shellfish are relatively abundant on the Arctic and Bering Sea coasts of America, but are scarce in the Arctic regions of Europe and Asia. In regions where there is great variation in water level between high and low tides, shellfish can usually be obtained easily at low water, either by digging them with a stick on the tide fiats or by collecting them from exposed pools and off-shore reefs. On open sandy beaches with a low tide range, shellfish are often cast up by storm waves. Before eating them, how- ever, make sure they are not spoiled. Generally speaking, the bivalves, such as clams and mussels (Fig. 49-1, J, L, M, N) are more palatable than those with spiral shells, like snails, though all are edible.
One of the most common edible mollusks of the Far North is the small blackish-purple mussel (Fig. 49U-X). In North Pacific waters this mussel is poisonous at certain times of the year and in regions south of the Aleutian Islands should not be eaten. In the Arctic and on the shores of the Bering Sea, however, they may be eaten safely.
Chitons ( Fig. 49-K ) attach themselves to rocks and have to be pried off. They are oval in shape and have the shell divided into eight separate overlapping plates.
The eggs of the spiny sea urchins (Fig. 49-H) are excellent food. In early days enormous quantities were consumed by the natives of the Aleutian Islands and South Alaska. Sea urchins are easily collected among the rocks and in tide pools at low water. The bright yellow eggs or roe are obtained by breaking the shell between two stones. One adult may contain as much as a tablespoonful of eggs.
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Another sea animal that provides good food is the sea cu- cumber (fig. 49-G). Inside the body are five long white muscles that taste much like clam meat.
In early summer it is sometimes possible to scoop up smelt when they come to the edge of the beach to spawn in the surf.
Whenever available the Eskimos and northern Indians eat kelp* the long ribbon-like seaweed, as well as the smaller branch- ing variety that grows among the off-shore rocks. It is eaten raw. In mid-summer many of the seaweeds are covered with herring eggs and these are eagerly eaten by the Eskimos.
Fish
Salmon, cod, sculpin, trout, whitefish, herring, flounder, and other salt water fish are abundant in the Arctic and along northern Atlantic and Pacific shores. Some of these can be caught by surf casting from the beach with a long hand line. In spring and summer salmon enter many of the northern streams to spawn — often in such numbers that they can be speared from the bank. An improvised gig or spear— -a long pole with two or three sharp wooden barbs lashed to the end- can be used effectively in shallow water.
Small trout, grayling, and other fresh water fish will take any kind of bait — worm, bug or piece of meat— -and can be caught with the simplest of makeshift tackle, such as a bent pin or a small sharp wooden hook attached to a thread or raveling.
The simplest form of hook, one used by primitive peoples in many parts of the world, is the gorge. This is a straight sliver of wood or bone sharpened at both ends and with the line
THE ARCTIC
attached at the middle. It is entirely covered with bait and is swallowed lengthwise by the fish. A poll on the line then turns it crosswise in the gullet.
In winter fish can be caught at open leads or through holes cut in the ice. The hook should be barbless so that the fish can flop off as soon as it is hauled out, for in cold weather it is difficult to remove a barbed hook with bare fingers.
Tom-cod and sculpin are the principal salt water fish that can be caught in winter. Bait is not necessary. A white stone used for a sinker, or a bit of shiny metal or brightly colored cloth tied just above the hook will attract the fish, jvhich can then be caught by jigging the line up and down.
In fishing through the ice for lake trout or salmon the hook should be lowered to the bottom, then raised a few inches and kept constantly jigging. The best bait is a strip cut from the belly of a fish.
Land Animals
The caribou is the best all-round food animal on land in the American Arctic. Some caribou move south to forested country in the fall, but many remain on the northern islands and Barren Grounds throughout the winter. Approach them carefully, taking advantage of any cover, and try to get within 200 yards before firing. Be certain that you are down wind from them so that they cannot get your scent.
Wolves, foxes, snow-shoe rabbits, lemmings, weasels, and field mice remain the year round and may be shot or trapped for food. Ground squirrels are found in summer but hibernate in winter. Musk-ox provide excellent food but are now found in only a few remote localities in the Far North.
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Rabbits and ground squirrels can be caught with a spring pole snare (Fig. 50). A light pole about 5 feet long (A) is stuck in the ground or a growing sapling can be bent over. Over the runway or the entrance of the burrow is placed a bent-over limb (B), both ends of which are stuck firmly in the ground. A strong cord or light pliable wire is fastened securely to the end
of the spring pole, the longer end forming a noose and the shorter end hanging free (upper left). The free end and the line leading to the noose are looped (not tied) into a simple “catch loop’* (upper right) on the under side of the bent over limb (B). This catch loop holds down the end of the spring pole. After the animal’s head goes through the noose the slightest pull by his shoulders will release the catch loop thus freeing the spring pole and drawing the noose tight.
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1471
If the snare is set to catch rabbits on a runway, the bent limb (B) should be about 1 foot 3 inches high at the middle. The bottom of the noose should be about 6 inches off the ground. Brush or limbs should be placed under it and on either side to prevent the animal from going under or around.
For catching ground squirrels the noose should be placed directly in front of the burrow and be slightly smaller than the opening.
If a spring pole is not available a simple hanging noose can be attached to a fixed limb or other immovable object and suspended over the runway or burrow entrance.
Sea Animals
Polar bears live on the ice floes and feed on seals. They can be shot without much trouble but it takes a bullet in the heart or brain to kill them. Polar bear liver is poisonous and should not be eaten .
Seals are hard to approach but every effort should be made to get them for they provide the best meat. In spring seals come up to bask on the ice beside their breathing holes. They sleep restlessly, raising their heads about every 30 seconds to look around for their enemy, the polar bear. In approaching the seal, the Eskimo hunter crawls forward cautiously while the seal is sleeping, being careful to keep downwind of it. When the seal moves the hunter stops and imitates its movements, lying fiat on the ice, raising his head up and down and wriggling his body slightly. In order to look as much like a seal as possible the hunter approaches the seal sideways instead of head on and keeps his arms close to his body. Since the seal is lying on
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smooth ice and usually at an incline near the edge of the breath- ing hole, it must be killed instantly by a shot through the brain, for with the least movement of its body it will slide into the water. Therefore, it should be shot shrough the head at close range, 25 to 50 yards, so that the hunter can dash up and seize it before it reaches the water and sinks.
Seals can also be shot in open water, and in winter they will usually float, but the problem is to retrieve them. To accomplish this the Eskimos use a seal hook, a short wooden club or ball about the size of a. grapefruit, with four sharp upcurved iron hooks at the center. This is attached to a long line and is thrown over the seal which is hooked and pulled in. The wooden grapple described in the section on making your own fishing kit (p. 12) would serve this purpose if it were heavy enough and the barbs sharp and strong enough to penetrate the seal’s hide.
Walruses are found on moving ice floes or at leads not far from shore where they can feed on clams. They should be shot through the neck, just below the head.
Birds
The only birds that remain in the Arctic over the winter are ptarmigan, owls and ravens. Even these are likely to be scarce north of the timber line, especially in the interior. Havens are thin and of little use as food but owls and ptarmigan equal any game bird in taste. Ptarmigan can be caught with noose snares or even knocked down with a stick or stone.
In summer countless numbers of birds come north to breed. Ducks, geese, loons, and many other kinds of land birds build their nests near ponds on the low tundra and their eggs can be
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149
collected for food. Millions of sea birds nest on rocky shore cliffs but are usually hard to reach.
The Eskimos catch many birds with simple noose snares. To catch nesting birds they place the noose in the nest to catch the bird’s feet. The noose is attached to a stake driven in the ground nearby. Sometimes long lines with many small nooses attached are set out on beaches and ponds where birds gather.
Sea gulls can be caught with a gorge made of a sharp sliver of bone or wood about 8% inches long with a long line attached at the middle. The bait is a piece of fish or meat completely covering the stick or bone, which when swallowed will turn crosswise in the gull’s throat.
Plant Foods
Though plant food is not abundant in the Arctic it is by no means absent. In the summer there are numerous varieties of edible berries, greens, roots, and lichens that can be collected along the seacoasts and in the interior if one knows where to look. A few varieties of berries may be found even in winter under the snow. There is no need to* worry about poisonous plants, for with the exception of a single variety of mushroom (Fig. 51), none grows in the Arctic. The only problem is to be able to distinguish the more palatable and nutritious plants from those that have no value as food. Brief descriptions of the principal Arctic food plants are given below :
The salmonberry (Fig. 52), also known as the cloudberry, is a low creeping plant, rarely more than 3 inches high. It is widely distributed in the Arctic, growing on mossy, peaty soil. The leaves are large and wide, with five lobes, and the flowers
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WHITE GILLS
Figure 51.*—:
Poisonous mushroom, about 3 y2" broad, 7*4" high. See p. 149.
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SALMON-COLORED BERRY
Figure 52.— Salmonberry, 3" to 10" high. See p. 149.
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are white, about % of an inch iu diameter. The berries are about the size of raspberries, very juicy with a pleasant taste. When immature they are red, changing to yellow as they ripen in July or August. The mountain cranberry (Fig. 53) is a low, creeping evergreen shrub from 2 to 8 inches high. It has small, shiny, dark green leaves and clusters of white or pink bell- shaped flowers. The berries are dark red, about % to % inch in diameter. They ripen in August and September, but remain on the bush all winter and can be gathered the next spring when they taste even better than in the fall. The plant is widely distributed in the Arctic but usually does not bear fruit north of the tree line. It is found in greatest abundance in open birch and willow thickets. When stewed and sweet- ened the mountain cranberry is even better than the' southern variety.
The black crowberry (Fig. 54) is a low evergreen plant with spreading branches and small narrow leaves resembling those of a fir or spruce. The flowers are inconspicuous. The small, black shiny berries are sweet and juicy. The crowberry is found in many parts of the Arctic, growing best in sandy or rocky soil, especially along the seacoasts. The Eskimos are very fond of the berries a.nd collect them from under the snow, since they remain on the bush through the winter.
Two varieties of bilberry, closely resembling our blueberry, grow in abundance on the mossy hillsides and tundra. They produce delicious bluish-black berries. Somewhat resembling the bilberries are the Alpine and red bearberry, low plants with small red or black berries. They are rather mealy, and taste better stewed.
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FLOWERS
PINKISH
FRUITS
RED
LEAVES
THICK
Figure 53.-=r-Mountain cranberry. Low, creeping. See p. 152.
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. ft
Figurb 54. — Black crowberry. See p. 152,
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155
In the forested interior there are several other varieties of edible berries, the most important being the Northern goose- berry, the red currant, and the wild raspberry.
GREENS
Mountain sorrel (Fig. 55) is a low plant with round or kidney- shaped leaves and stalks of small red or green flowers that grows on shady hillslopes and ravines. The leaves have a pleas- ant, slightly acid taste and may be eaten raw or boiled.
The willow herb or northern flreweed is an erect plant with dark green, narrow, pointed leaves and large purple flowers that reaches a height of 18 inches. It grows on shady or gravelly soil, especially along creeks and river banks. When cooked, the leaves taste something like spinach.
Wild rhubarb (Fig. 56) is a large plant, 3* to 0 feet high, with reddish stems, large pointed leaves and clusters of small flowers. It is common in the Yukon and Mackenzie valleys but absent to the east. The young juicy stems that appear in the spring may be stewed or boiled like rhubarb.
The tender young leaves of the dwarf willow (Fig. 48) and also the inner bark of willow roots, may be boiled and eaten. These are among the favorite vegetable foods of the Eskimos in some parts of Alaska.
Another favorite food plant of the Bering Sea Eskimos and Aleuts is the wild celery or wild parsnip (Fig. 57) . On the main- land usually it is less than 2 feet tall, but on the Aleutian Islands it reaches a height of 6 feet or more. It has a straight thick stalk, large leaves with deeply indented margins, and numerous clusters of small flowers branching out at the top of the stalk.
SURVIVAL ON LAND AND SEA
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157
The tender inner portions of the main stalk and the leaf stalks have a somewhat sweetish taste and may be eaten raw after stripping off the outer covering. It grows in protected spots where the soil is rich, especially around old village sites, and is well known as a food plant in the sub-Arctic sections of Green- land, Kamchatka, and Europe.
Kelp and other seaweeds are also eaten by the Eskimos, either raw or boiled.
ROOTS
Four kinds of edible roots are shown in figures 58 to 61. Lico- rice root (Fig. 58) grows from 1 to 2 feet high and has stalks of pink flowers that develop into seed pods. It has a flexible root, about as thick as a man’s finger. When cooked it tastes like carrots.
The woolly lousewort (Fig. 59) is 5 to 8 inches high with several stems of rose colored flowers, and has a yellow tap root which tastes like carrots. It is found mostly in dry tundra country.
Snakeroot (Fig. 60) from 5 to 10 inches high with large oblong leaves, spikes of white or pink flowers and an edible root about I the size of a pecan, grows on dry tundra.
There is a small plant belonging to the lily family (Fig. 61) that is common on the Aleutian Islands and along the Alaskan coast to Bering Strait and the opposite shores of Asia, but is not found in the high Arctic.- It has greenish purple flowers, long pointed leaves and an edible root like a small onion. The roots taste bitter when raw but can be boiled into a starch paste and eaten. Eskimos and Aleuts are fond of the bulbs, often boiling them with their meat.
570603°— 44 -11
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Figuee 56. — Wild rhubarb, a large edible herb, 3-6 feet high.
See p. 155.
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159
Figure 57. — Wild celery or parsnip. Herb, 2-6 feet high. See p. 155.
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Figure 60. — Snakeroot, height up to 10 inches. See p. 157.
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163
FLOWERS GREENISH PURPLE.
Figure 61. — Fritillaria, lilylike kerb. Root parts onionlike, edible
when boiled. See p. 157.
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EDIBLE FUNGI AND LICHENS
Many edible mushrooms occur in the wooded sections, but one kind is poisonous (Fig. 51). This is white or greenish or grayish brown, is smooth on top, has white gills, and a bulbous base. To be on the safe side avoid any mushroom with white gills and a swollen base. All others may be eaten.
Among the edible lichens of the North are reindeer moss (Fig. 62) and Iceland moss (Fig. 63) which resembles it. These are low, moss-like plants with a network of branching stems in- stead of leaves. To be eaten they must first be soaked in water, then dried, ground into a powder, and again placed in water for several hours before being boiled. This will produce a sticky porridge-like mixture which though somewhat insipid to taste, has considerable food value.
Another edible lichen that may be prepared in the same way is rock tripe (Fig. 64) a black or brown leathery lichen that grows abundantly on rocks all through the Arctic. It has broad fronds, 1 to 3 inches in diameter, folded or crinkled at the edges and attached to the rock at the center. Bock tripe is commonly used in the North as an emergency food. Sir John Franklin, Richardson and other early Arctic explorers lived for weeks on it with hardly any other food.
Arctic Ailments
Showblindness is caused by the glare from snow and ice, not only from light reflected directly by the sun, but also from dif- fused light when the sky is dark and overcast. Though actual blindness does not result, the condition is painful and serious.
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165
GREENISH
GRAY.
ON OPEN TUNDRA
Figure 62. — Reindeer moss. See p. 164.
Rubbing the eyes will increase the burning and stinging sensa- tion. The only treatment is complete rest for the eyes by wear- ing dark glasses or, in severe cases, by bandaging the eyes.
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To prevent snowblindness dark glasses should be worn at all times. They should have shields to prevent glare from entering at the sides. The rims should not be of metal as they might stick to the skin. If dark glasses are not available, improvised goggles can be made from pieces of canvas or other heavy cloth, cardboard, or even pieces of wood, with narrow slits for the eyes. Blackening the cheeks and nose with soot is helpful.
For warmth, clothing should be kept as dry as possible. Before going inside the tent or shelter, brush the snow from your clothes. It is extremely important to avoid overheating for
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167
BROWN
LIKE
*V LEATHERY LEAVES ON ROCKS.
GREENISH
Figure 64.-— Hock tripe. See p. 164.
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freezing may result from excessive perspiration. With the heavy clothes that you have to wear in the Arctic you will naturally sweat if you are very active. As soon as you are conscious of overheating, loosen your clothing or remove the outer layers entirely. If you are doing hard work or hiking you will not need as much clothing as when you are inactive. The guiding rule is to avoid heavy sweating at all costs, wearing just enough clothes to keep warm and comfortable, and removing outer garments as soon as you begin to' perspire.
Socks, inner soles, and boots should be dried at night. If possible, stuff wet shoes with dry grass or other material to absorb the moisture ; do not put them too near the fire or they will harden and crack.
You must be on guard against frostbite and freezing of the fingers, toes, ears, face or other parts. Keep your face and ears covered as much as possible and wiggle your fingers and toes frequently to keep up circulation. Should a white spot appear on the skin, or the toes or fingers begin to feel numb, treatment should be begun immediately. If the white patch can be covered with a warm, ungloved hand circulation may be quickly restored to it. Frosted fingers may be treated by contact with the warm body under the clothing. A frosted foot is best warmed by removal of the shoe and sock and the placing of the bare foot inside the shirt and against the body of a companion. Gentle massage may aid in restoring circulation. Do not rub roughly or apply snow or ice to the part. The application of heat at tem- peratures greater than that of the body (98.6° F.) will do more harm than good. If circulation cannot be restored promptly and the part returned to- its normal color, it should be wrapped (in a sterile bandage if possible) , be covered warmly and kept at rest.
VIII
THE DESERTS
Deserts are usually large, barren, dry, hot in the daytime, cool at night, and relatively free from dangerous large animals. Being too large to walk out of easily, deserts force you to plan carefully and to conserve your strength and supplies to the ut- most. Being barren, deserts cannot be expected to