THE NEW INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA
SUPPLEMENT COURSES OF READING
VOLUME XXV
NEW YORK
DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY « 1928
Copyright, 1924 BY DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
All right* reserved
VAIL-BALLOU PIMI, INC., BIMGBAMTOX, N. y. J. F. TAPLBY Co , LONG ISLAND CITT, N. Y.
ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME XXV
MAPS
VACOTO FACB
CENTRAL EUEOPE BEFORE AND SINCE THE WAR 988
WAR AREA OP WESTERN EUROPE 1398
WAR AREA OF EASTERN EUROPE 1420
ENGRAVINGS
NAVIES — British Battle Cruiser "Hood" 910
NAVIES — Japanese Battleship "Mutsu" 911
NEW YORK — Airplane View 934
ORDNANCE — IT. S. Army High Power Guns 960
ORDNANCE — U. S. Army Projectiles 961
ORPEN, SIR WILLIAM — "The Costermonger" 964
PAINTING — Joseph Stella, "Brooklyn Bridge"; Ernest Lawson, "Winter Scene" . 972 PAINTING — Boris Anisfeld, "Le Eoi de Lahore"; Daniel Garber, "Hawk's Nest" 973
RADIO BROADCASTING 1094
RADIO COMMUNICATION 1095
V
ROOSEVELT, THEODORE 1136
SCULPTURE— James Earl Frazer, "The End of the Trail" 1188
SHIPBUILDING — Motor Vessels 1200
SHIPBUILDING — British Steamship "Majestic" 1202
TELEPHONY 1280
THEATRE — Modern Stagecraft 1292
THEATRE — "The Miracle" 1294
TUNNELS — Drawings of Tunnelling Operations 1312
TUNNELS — Interior of Hudson River Vehicular Tunnel 1313
VESSEL, NAVY — U. S. Airplane Carriers and Auxiliary Vessels 1360
VESSEL, NAVY— U. S. Light Cruiser "Richmond" 1361
VESSEL, NAVY— U. S. Battleship "Maryland" 1362
WASHINGTON — Lincoln Memorial 1450
WATER POWER— Hydro-Electric Installation at Niagara Falls 1460
WILSON, WOODROW 1474
TALE UNIVERSITY — Branford Court of Harkness Memorial Building . . . , 1488
THE NEW INTERNATIONAL lENCYCLOP^DIA
started at create was zni incorporated services, rend tinually augm increase in i ness, and tax
TTNICTPAIi QOVEBNKENT.
The outstanding feature in mu- nicipal government from 1014 to 1924 was the rapid advance of the commission-manager plan, which was only fairly well ' lining of 1914. A rapid in- n umbers and population of in the United States; their at public expense, were con- 1; and there was a consequent icipal expenditures, indebted- lies. All three increases were accelerated by he War and post-war condi- tions during the^O years. No true picture of these increases in be gained without taking into account the\diminished purchasing power of the dollar aii the greatly increased com- modity and conduction cost index. Besides the movement of titles toward the adoption of the commission-iinager city charter, other changes were mae, to effect more efficient municipal governnfot and at the same time to make it more restnsive to the wishes of the people. Where thacommission or the commis- sion-manager planjwith its small governing body, had not bee^ adopted, there were many changes to councilsbf much smaller size than formerly, with abolion also of the bicameral or two-chamber citytmncil where that was still in existence. The rate notable example was the substitution at Philifelphia on Jan. 1, 1920, of a single council of el members for the old double-chambered coicil of 144.
The census of 1920howed that the 50 largest cities of the country \d a population of nearly
38,000,000. The 60 States in 1870 had 000, or only 163,000 of New York in 1! States had only 14 c or more, compared w including the census between urban and By 1880 urBan life intense that the tended to embrace 2500 population and sise, in certain
cities of the United population of 5,773,- than the population In 1870 the United f 100,000 population in 1920. Up to and 1870 the dividing line population was 8000. [become so much more .ssiftcation was ex* corporated places of d all towns of that
„ , . land States. On this
basis the urban populatilof the United States cm Jan. 1, 1920, totaledl,300,000, or 51.4 per cent of the entire popujion of the country; these people lived in 27(plaees. Smaller in-
urbai
2-30
8Q5
corporated places, each functioning municipally to a greater or less degree, numbered 12,905 in 1920 and had a population about 9,000,000. For 1924 it is safe to assume some 16,000 in- corporated places with a total population of about 65,000,000, or nearly 60 per cent that of the entire country. A preliminary statement by the Bureau of the Census reporting taxes col- lected in 1922 and 1912 shows that incorporated places of more than 2500 population collected a total of $1,532,000,000 taxes in 1922 against $850,000,000 in 1912, an increase of 80 per cent. The corresponding figures for taxes levied by counties are $745,000,000 and $308,000,000, an increase of 142 per cent. The net debt of cities (gross-debt sinking-fund assets) for all incor- porated places in the United States was $4,709,- 000,000 or $70.80 per capita in 2922, against $2,885,000,000 or $54.07 per capita in 1912.
Charters and Municipal Home Rule. One by one the various State Legislatures of the Union have given up the early and long-prevail- ing practice of enacting separate charters for individual cities. In some places it is still with- in the power of a Legislature to do this, al- though the power is rarely exercised. A number of State constitutions prohibit all legislation ap- plying to one city only. Some years ago New York State made such legislation subject to local veto by the mavor or in smaller places by the local legislative body. New York in 1914 and Massachusetts in 1915 passed option- al charter acts under which municipalities can by popular vote choose between six types of charter in New York and four types in Massa- chusetts. The three main types in each State are the federal or mayor-ana-council type, with varying degree of separation between legislative and executive functions; the commission plan, and the commission-manager plan. In 1915 the voters of New York State defeated municipal home-rule amendments to the State constitution which had been drawn by a constitutional con- vention. After persisting in an attempt to the same end, New York State in 1924 became the thirteenth in the Union to grant more or less extensive home-rule powers to its municipalities. The New York home-rule constitutional amend- ment was adopted by a popular majority of 426,000 at the November election in 1923. The necessary enabling act specifying the details of home-rule powers and methods of exercising them was pasted by the Legislature of 1984 and ap-
MUNICIPAL GOVEBNHBNT
proved by Governor Smith on April 24. The amendment added several flections to Article XII of the New York State constitution, which makes it the duty of the Legislature to provide for the government of municipalities.
The Enabling Act (Chapter 363, Laws of 1024) extends broadly to all kinds of strictly local legislation, including the making and amending of municipal charters, but leaves un-
896 MUNICIPAL QOVEBWMENT
adopted in the State, but repeated efforts to secure the manager plan were defeated.
Rapid Progress of City-Manarer Plan. Up to 1914 the city-manager plaa had teen adopted by only 23 municipalities; fhe first of these was Staunton, Va., which crested the of- fice of business manager by ordinance in 1908 From 1915 on, there was first slow and steady and then more rapid progress in the adoption of
o _»__.-» . , — r "~ f'-vjj.m.HM *« V*l*} U.UVSUIJUJ1 Ul
altered the power of the Legislature to pass cer- the manager plan. The official Ytar Book of
tain kinds of lawn nnnliralilp to All munipinal- *fc« d*»i \tn«*nno*>a> A «n«^x.^?«^. *._ m^-i
tain kinds of laws applicable to all municipal- ities. The amendment also authorizes the Legis-
CITY MANAGER CITIES
(From The City Manayer Magazine, April, 1924.) The following represents the growth of the manager plan by years.
Put in effect By charter By ord. Total 1908 0 1 1
1912 1 2 3
1913 8 8 11
1014 15 6 21
1915 13 7 20
1916 15 5 20
1917 13 6 18
1918 20 8 28
1919 20 11 81
1920 23 12 85
1921 41 7 48
1922 28 10 88
1923 40 8 48
1924 6 1 7
1925 1 0 1
1926 1 0 1
Totals 245
86
331
la tii re to pass special legislation by a two- thirds concurrent vote of each house, on receipt of an emergency message from the Governor. Every city is granted constitutional "power to adopt and amend local laws not inconsistent with the constitution and laws of the State/' These laws may relate to a wide range of sub- jects. The amendment makes it the duty of the Legislature to provide by general law for putting the amendment into effect. The En- abling Act authorizes any local legislative body to pass local acts superseding existing State legislation applying to the municipality in ques- tion alone The act makes compulsory a refer- endum vote on certain charter changes and local ordinances suoh as those changing the veto power of the Mayor, creating a new executive office, abolishing a branch of the legislative body, or alienating city property. Other kinds of local acts are subject to referendum on petition. Provision is made for local drafting of new charters. The municipal assembly is prohibited by the Enabling Act from passing any law re- moving or raising debt or tax limits and vari- ous other matters retained under State control. In the case of New York City and in recognition of the large legislative powers vested in the Board of Estimate and Apportionment, the En- abling Act gives the power to enact local laws to a bicameral body known as the Municipal Assembly, consisting of the Board of Estimate and Apportionment and the Board of Aldermen. Before they are approved by the Mayor, he must give a hearing on all local laws passed by the Assembly. The Mayor's veto of such laws may be reconsidered by the Municipal Assembly and passed over the veto by a two-thirds vote On reconsideration the Mayor is not allowed to vote. The New Jersey Legislature of 1023 granted to any municipality in that State the right to adopt the eommiasion-nisjiager form of city char- ter. A plain commission plan enabling act was passed some years earlier and had been widely
the City Managers' Association frr 1924, re- vised to March 15, showed that 3J9 municipal- ities in the United States and Oinada and 7 in foreign countries had adopted the manager plan. Of the 319 cities, 240 had adopted the plan by charter and 73 by ordinance. The char- ter method is considered the betfrr of the two because it is more stable and rests on the referendum vote.
The population of cities opera ing under the city-manager plan in 1924 was nearly 5,000 - 000 in the United States, 130,000in Canada and 470,000 in other countries. Thi largest Amer- ican city under the plan was Cleveland, Ohio, with a 1920 population of 797,00. Other Amer- ican manager cities with popultions in excess of 100,000 in 1920 were: Nofolk, Va, 159- 000; Dayton, Ohio, 153,000;. Grand Rapids, Mich., 137,000. By far the largf number of man- ager cities are relatively small , The largest for- eign city listed in the Year tiok already men- tioned is Leeds, England, \ih a population about 430,000. The total nutter of manager cities given does not include those that have abandoned the plan. Of thec, there are alto- gether 76 that were reported is having adopted the plan, but of that numbe the reports were unfounded in many cases. <f the 70 cities, 72 either never really adopted the plan or el«e adopted and abandoned it uner ordinance. The plan has been abandoned b only 4 cities that adopted it under charter, he largest of these was Akron, Ohio, which ad*ted a manager plan not wholly as standard in 020 and gave it up four years later. The -her charter cities which abandoned the manajr plan are Waltham, Mass , Hot Springs, Ark., nd Lawton, Okla.
Promotions of city maigers have been com- mon, with 72 instances. € to Mar. 15, 1924, the Year Book already cited *ates that 259 mana- gers were serving in theirirst cities, 30 in their second, 6 in their third, in their fourth, and one in his fifth. The o^er 13 of the 72 pro- motions were of men 't now following the profession of city mana^r. The leading man- agers command high series, not always pro- portioned to the populson of the city. There were, however, many m/agers giving good serv- ice at modest salaries, -n 14 cities the salaries paid to managers wer<P10,000 or over. Cleve- land, Ohio, where the an went into effect Jan. 1, 1924, pays $25,00' a year Norfolk, Va., and Stockton, Cal , pa$20,000; their respective populations in 1920 we 159,000 and 40,000 In the $16,000 class wer-Knoxville, Tenn., with a population of 78,000, id Sacramento, Cal., with a population of 66/0. Pasadena, Cal., and Lynchburg, Va., pay 12,000 a year. The cities in the $10,000 claswere Long Beach, Cal.; Miami, Fla.; Dubue, Iowa; Portland, Me.; Beaumont, Texas; tersburg, Va.; and Blue- field, W. Va. The *t named had the smallest population of any /the $10,000 class — 16,000. See CITT PLANWG, GARBAGE, MUNICIPAL OWNERSHIP, SBWE^I, WATERWOBKB,
MUNICIPAL L&AGTTE 897
MUNICIPAL LEAGUE, NATIONAL. An organization founded in 1894 for the study of municipal problems and the dissemination of information on the subjects relating to them. The society was active in the decade 1014-1924. Annual meetings are held in different cities. The twenty-first meeting was held in Dayton, Ohio, in 1915. During this year several important volumes were published, including Lower Living Coats in Cities, by Clyde L. King; The City Manager, by H. A. Toulmin, Jr. In 1916 the meeting was held in Springfield, Ohio. There was an important discussion on the influence of politics in city government. Lawson Purdy succeeded Wl W. Foulke as president. The meeting in 1917 discussed many other subjects, including the experience of American and Ca- nadian cities during war time. A survey com- mission to examine different phases of municipal government was appointed, as was also a Con- ference of State Leagues of Municipalities to act as a separate organization. Lawson Purdy was reflected president. In this year the so- ciety published many other volumes, including Municipal Functions, by H. G. James. The session of 1918, held in New York City, gave the major part of its time to the discussion of various phases of Bolshevism. In November of the same year, a conference on reconstruction was held under the auspices of the society, in Rochester. In 1019 the meeting at Cleveland took the form of a moot constitutional conven- tion, at which sundry questions on constitu- tional reform were discussed at length. Clinton Rogers Woodruff retired as secretary after twenty-live years of service. He was appointed honorary secretary. Hon. Charles E. Hughes was elected president at this meeting In In- dianapolis, in 1920, the society discussed the report of a commission on State government. President Hughes delivered an address on the fate of the direct primary At this meeting the society voted to unite with the American Civic Association. H. W. Waite was elected presi- dent. A feature of the meeting in Philadelphia in 1022 was an address delivered by Albert Shaw on the history of the work of the society, entitled A Thirty Years' View. A committee on electoral reform was appointed at this ses- sion. At the meeting in Washington, in 1923, many phases of municipal government were dis- cussed. Through its committee on State gov- ernment it has prepared a Model State Consti- tution which was debated and accepted at three successive annual conventions. The constitu- tion is published in pamphlet form with ex- planatory articles. The League has also pre- pared a number of pamphlets designed for classes in high schools, and many others on technical subjects. Its official organ is The National Municipal Review, monthly. The secretary is H. W. Dodds.
MUNICIPAL OWNERSHIP. Waterworks lead public utilities in percentage of plants un- der municipal ownership and even more marked- ly in percentage of population supplied. All of the 10 largest cities of the United States own their works. In the second group of 10 all but San Francisco and Indianapolis, and every one in the third group of ten, have them un- der public ownership. In cities ranging from thirty-first to fiftieth in population, all but six have municipally owned works. There are only nine examples of private ownership in the 50 largest cities of the country. In the second
MUNICIPAL OWNERSHIP
group of 50 cities, only six Lave them under private ownership. Out of the 100 largest cities, 15 had private-owned works. No figures for the whole country have been compiled since those given in the MoOraw Waterworks Direc- tory for 1915. Of 4400 works there listed for the United States, a number probably too small to include all works then built, 3045, or nearly 70 per cent, were municipally owned. For Canada, figures published by the Canadian Con- servation Commission in 1915 showed that of 528 waterworks, 306, or about 75 per cent, were under municipal ownership, In some of the provinces, all of the works were publicly owned. Denver, Colo., after many years of effort and agitation to that end, acquired its waterworks from private owners in 1018. San Francisco, which had also been struggling for municipal ownership for a long time, had not succeeded up to 1924 in taking over the distribution sys- tem, but had completed what was formerly known as the Hetch Hetchy Dam and now called the O'Shaughnessy Dam, to form a large im- pounding reservoir on the Tuolumne River. It also had well under way the construction of a large aqueduct from the reservoir to the city. (See AQUEDUCTS and DAMS.) Extensive hydro- electric power development is a part of the proj- ect, and this is also true of the water supply brought to Los Angeles by a notable aqueduct. A notable event in 1923 was the transfer on December 15 to the city of Morristown, N. J., of the waterworks originally built in 1799 by the proprietors of the Morris Aqueduct. By this transfer there passed to municipal ownership the last of 15 privately owned waterworks in the United States built up to the close of the year 1800. On the date last named there was in existence only one municipally owned water- works in the United States, at Winchester, Va.
Next to waterworks in public ownership in the United States stand electric light and power stations. A summary published in the Elec- trical World of Aug. 11, 1923, based on the 1923 edition of the McGraw Central Station Di- rectory, shows that on Oct. 1, 1922, there were in the United States 5974 central station sys- tems; of this number 2019, or 33.7 per cent, were municipally operated. The largest number of municipal central stations was reported from the west north central States, in which of 1460 stations, 693 were municipally operated.
Gas works in the United States make a very small showing for municipal ownership. Ac- cording to figures compiled by the American Gas Association, based on the 1923 edition of Brown's Directory of American Gas Companies, of 966 gas works in the United States in 1923 only 51, or 5 per cent, were municipally owned, and the plants under municipal ownership sup- plied only 1.6 per cent of the total output of gas for the year to less than 2 per cent of the entire population supplied by gas ; 662,000 popu- lation were supplied by municipally owned works out of a total of 45,000,000 people served. The 51 municipally owned gas works were located in 21 States, with six in Minnesota, five in Virginia, and four each in Georgia, Iowa, and Massachusetts. The largest of these was that supplying the Omaha metropolitan district in Nebraska; this was taken over by the district in 1920. The two next largest were at Rich- mond, Va., and Duluth, Minn.
Street railways are but rarely under munici-
MUNICIPAL TAXATION
898
MUSCLE SHOALS
pal ownership in the United States, but more commonly in Canada, and still more generally in Great Britain. In point of magnitude of works and capital investment, the subways and other railways forming part of the rapid transit system of New York City lead the country. These, however, are privately operated, and so are the municipally owned subways and elevated lines of Boston and Philadelphia. Important extensions to the New York and the Philadel- phia rapid transit systems were still under way and projected in 1924. Within the pre- ceding decade, San Francisco, Seattle, and De- troit went extensively into municipal owner- ship of street railways. San Francisco had either built or acquired by purchase over 60 miles of single track up to June 30, 1923. Seat- tle on Mar. 1, 1919, took over by purchase from the Puget Sound Traction Light and Power Company 203 miles of railway track at a pur- chase price of $15,000,000; this had been au- thorized by a popular vote of 4 to 1 in Novem- l>er, 1918. Detroit acquired an extensive street railway system.
In Canada, 15 municipalities have gone into municipal ownership of street railways. The entire street railway system of Toronto was under municipal ownership early in 1924 and some suburban lines also, although the latter were operated by the Ontario Hydro-electric Commission. Sewerage systems, though not usu- ally regarded as a public utility, i.e. subject to private franchise and operation for private prop- erty, are owned by a few cities in the United States, the chief of which is Atlantic City ; they are similarly owned in some foreign countries, as in the city of Valparaiso, Chile. The Public Ownership League of America, with national headquarters in Chicago, is devoted to the pro- motion of public ownership and democratic con- trol of public utilities and natural resources and issues various bulletins on the subject.
MUNICIPAL TAXATION. See TAXATION IN THE UNITED STATES.
MUNITIONS OF WAR. See ORDNANCE.
MUNSEY, FBANK ANDREW (1854-1926). An American publisher (see VOL. XVI). During the decade 1914-24 he was especially active in the newspaper field and established and acquired by purchase several newspapers, including the Washington Times, Baltimore News, New York flt/n. New York Globe, New York Mail, New York Evening Telegram, and New York Herald. The last he sold in 1924 to Ogden Reid, who consolidated it with the New York Tribune.
MURDOCH, VICTOR (1871- ). An Amer- ican legislator (see VOL. XVI). In 1917 he was appointed a member of the Federal Trade Commission. He was reappointed for the term expiring 1925. During the War he served as a member of the meat commission of the United States government. From 1914 to 1916 he was chairman of the Progressive national committee. He wrote China, the Mysterious and Marvelous (1920), and Folks (1921).
MURMANSK COAST EXPEDITION. See RUSSIA, History.
MURBAY, (GEORGE) GILBERT (AiMt) (1866- ). A noted English philologist (see VOL. XVI). He has published since 1914 Stoic Philosophy (1915); Failh, War and Policy (1918) ; Euripides and His Age (1918) ; Satan- ism and the World Orders (1920), and Prob- lems of Foreign Policy (1921).
MUSCLE SHOALS. A location on the Ten-
nessee River 2.7 miles above the railway bridge at Florence, Ala., and a few miles from Sheffield. During the War the United States put under way a notable development there for the 'manu- facture of nitrates for use in military explosives and also a large power plant involving the con- struction of a hundred-foot dam across the river. (See DAMS, Wilson Dam.) Under the terms of the National Defense Act of 1910 the site for the dam at this point was acquired, and in the following year United States Nitrate Plants No. 1 and No. 2 were planned, the lat- ter directly at Muscle Shoals. This was done in order to secure an adequate supply of nitrate for the manufacture of munitions in case the United States should be cut off from the ma- terial imported from Chile. The reason foi locating such plants at Muscle Shoals was the great power to be obtained from the Tennessee River, the fourth in size of the rivers of the United States, having a flow of 8000 to 500,000 cubic feet per second and in this vicinity a fall of over 134 feet in 37 miles. The Tennessee River is navigable from its mouth to the foot of Muscle Shoals, and the completion of the No. 2 or Wilson Dam at this point with its lock and the construction of No. 1 Dam, a small dam for navigation only two miles below the Wilson Dam, would extend navigation for a distance of 15 miles. The building of the proposed Dam No. 3, 50 feet high, would extend navigation 65 miles further and supply additional power Up to 1924 navigation of the river had been slight, but much interest centred in the develop- ment of power, particularly at Dam No. 2, the Wilson Dam Here for 12 months in the year there would be available 87,300 horae power and for 97 per eent of the time 100,000 horse power, while for 21X> months the available power would increase up to 000,000 horse power. The United States No 2 Nitrate Plant at Muscle Shoals was completed so that operation could begin on Oct. 27, 1918, and it continued for a sufficient time after the Armistice to show that it could be run successfully. It had a capacity of 220,000 tons of eyanamid or 110,000 tons of ammonium nitrate per annum. This plant was of course operated by steam power; there is a 60,000 kilowatt steam-power plant at Muscle Shoals. Electricity was supplied over a 00-mile transmission line from a 30,000 kilowatt steam plant on the Warrior River. The plant at Muscle Shoals cost approximately $70,000,000 and the Warrior River plant and transmission line about $5,000,000 additional. The raw ma- terials required for nitrogen fixation were eoke from the Birmingham district or eastern Ten- nessee, limestone from the Waco quarry, 30 miles distant, and nitrogen from the air. The principal item was the cost of power; 85,000 kilowatts was required, and the steam plants were used pending the completion of the large dam across the river. The No. 2 plant could supply the nitrogen for 12 infantry divisions at the rate it was used in the War, or more than one-third of the inorganic nitrogen used in the production of fertilizers in the United States at this time. Consequently in the latter connection after the end of the War the farmers became interested in the utilization of the plant as an agency to increase the supply and decrease the cost of fertilizer. Accordingly after the War the future of this great power and manufactur- ing development became a matter of considerable debate. After a curtailment of construction
MUSIC
899
MUSIC
work on the Wilson Dam in 1021, it was de- cided to proceed vigorously with its completion, but no decision was reached as to the method of utilizing the power that would be developed, up to the autumn of 1924. Offers were made by Henry Ford, the Combined Power Compan- ies, in which the Alabama Power Company was a leading interest, a Mr. Hooker, and the Union Carbide Company, all of whom submitted to the government detailed proposals of plans for the utilization of the present and future power re- sources, the manufacturing of fertilizer, and the conditions under which it would be sold. The Ford proposal for a while attracted much pub- lic attention, but it was not altogether favor- able to the government according to many engineers. The various schemes were all under discussion in 1923 and 1924, but the question of disposing of the government-owned property at Muscle Shoals was not definitely decided at the session of Congress ending June 7, 1924, although at that time the sentiment was rather in favor of the government's retaining and oper- ating the property than of turning it over to Henry Ford to operate. There also were changes in the aspect of preparedness in this field as well as in the production and cost of fertilizer materials so that the conditions seemed to in- dicate that the power consideration might be preeminent over other considerations.
MUSIC. At the outbreak of the War, futur- ism was just making its appearance, and the majority of musicians, as well as music-lovers, then regarded the new movement as an aber- ration of taste not worthy of serious considera- tion. The decade 1914-24, however, witnessed such a rapid and general spread of the new cult that futurism was no longer to be ignored. To understand the situation at the close of this period it is necessary to distinguish between im- pressionism and futurism. Impressionism began as a reaction against the all-pervading influence of Wagner. For the fundamental principle of thematic development the impressionists sub- stituted the mere statement of themes, which followed one another in kaleidoscopic succession, without systematic repetition or development. But the necessity of themes as basic material was still recognized. The conscious employment of the higher overtones, while extending the possibilities of harmonic combinations and progressions for the attainment of special ef- fects, was carried to excess from the very be- ginning, with the result that impressionistic music rests not on the foundation of consonance, which was formerly the foundation of all music, but on dissonance. Around Debussy as their leader, a group of younger composers sprang up who soon made a caricature of impressionism and whose tendencies were dubbed futurism. These innovators, dispensing altogether with thematic invention, employed mere rhythmical figures. Kegularly defined rhythm was soon scorned as monotonous, and constant variation of rhythm was adopted as a fundamental prin- ciple. Different instruments played different rhythms simultaneously, so that each instru- mental part was entirely independent of all the others. This brought with it the complete and intentional disregard of the harmonic re- lations of sounds. The preponderant use of dissonance by the impressionists had already obliterated the dividing line between euphony and cacophony, and now the futurists denied the essential difference between consonance and dis-
sonance, proclaiming a system of "free har- mony" which permitted the combination and juxtaposition of all sounds, irrespective of re- lationship. This system frankly adopted caco- phony as its basic principle. As compositions were no longer written in a recognizable tonal- ity, key signatures disappeared and each ac- cidental was marked individually, with the re- sult that the printed page is as bewildering to the eye as the actual sounds to the ear. This method of writing soon became known as atonal- ism. However, some futurists insist on a dis- tinction between atonalism, the negation of the diatonic scale and the triad, and polytonalism, the superposition or interlocking of various tonalities. Thus, in a string quartet by Casella the first violin plays in Eb minor, the second violin in Bb major, the viola in F# minor, and the 'cello in D minor. The constant change of rhythm quite naturally led to the abolition of time signatures and bar lines. The next step was the introduction of quarter-tones; the scores of Alois Haba were actually pub- lished in the new quarter-tone notation. The craze for novel effects also led to an ab- normal augmentation of the mechanical means of sound-production. Orchestral instruments were exploited in unusual registers and in still more unusual combinations. As an extreme ex- ample of overloaded orchestration may be cited Schonberg's Gurrelieder, scored for 6 solo voices, 2 choruses of eight and 12 parts respectively, and 114 different orchestral parts — altogether 140 distinct parts! In the employment of this huge apparatus, SchOnberg defeats his very pur- pose and produces less startling and grotesque effects than Stravinsky does in his Histoire du tioldat, scored for an absurdly inadequate or- chestra of one violin, one clarinet, one bassoon, one cornet, one trombone, and several drums.
The outbreak of the War created conditions exceedingly favorable to the spread of futurism, especially in Europe. It happened that impres- sionism had already made great headway in Russia, England, and the Latin countries, whereas in Germany and Austria the traditions of the classic and romantic masters had proved an effective check against the new influence. With German music banished, or at least con- siderably curtailed, in all countries politically arrayed against Germany, the impressionists as- sumed undisputed leadership, and in their wake the futurists developed such an active campaign that in a very short time they succeeded to the dominating position. Debussy, who until the be- ginning of the War had been the acknowledged leader of the radicals or ultramodern ists, was deposed as too conservative, and his "place taken by the futurists Skriabin and Stravinsky. The futurists now became the ultramodernists, while the impressionists were relegated to the rank of mere modernists. In Germany and Austria the new gospel began to spread, and Schiinberg, whose partisans before the War had made some futile attempts at recognition, suddenly found himself elevated to a place by the side of Skri- abin and Stravinsky. As early as 1915 an Italian, Pratella, formulated the new futuristic creed: "Young composers, revolt against the tyranny of the publishers, the stupid presump- tion of the public, and the insipid gossip of critics all more or less bought. . . . Let us at- tack the prejudice for music that is well made, and despise that popular phrase, 'We must go liack to older music.' . . . Let us destroy the
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popular taste for old operas, whose exhumation encumbers the progress of new musicians. Let us compel the public, by assiduous propaganda, to be interested in all that teems with orig- inality and revolution in music. . . . We hear on every side that we are fools. It is from the window ot a glorious madhouse that we pro- claim as an essential principle of our futuristic revolution that counterpoint and fugue, foolishly considered one of the most important branches of musical instruction, are no more in our night than the ruins of the old science of polyphony that extends from the Flemish mas- ters to Bach. . . . We declare, moreover, the values of consonance and dissonance as abso- lutely inconsistent. From innumerable com- binations and from the diverse relations that result from them will arise the £reat futuristic melody. This melody will be simply the syn- thesis of harmony and in a way will resemble the ideal line formed by the continuous expand- ing of a thousand sea waves with irregular crests. . . . We have liked for a long time the enharmonic intervals produced by an orchestra that sounds out of tune in playing on diverse tonalities and that we hear in popular songs intoned without any knowledge of art. The rhythm of the dance will have to renounce the domain of polyphony for a free polyrhythmic manner. . . . The aesthetic intuition of the cre- ative artist will be sufficient to balance the succession and alternation of all tempi and of all possible rhythms. . . . The musician ought to listen only to his soul singing in synthetic explanation of his musical ideas. . . . The purely symphonic composer writes at the pleas- ure of his fantasy, neglecting all principles and laws, to obey only the futuristic equilibrium. . . . We must be careful not to consider as ab- solute symphonic forms the traditional schemes of the symphony used to-day, which are decayed and surpassed. ... We must express the mu- sical soul of the multitude, of the great indus- trial factories, of trains, transatlantic steamers, warships, automobiles, and aeroplanes. We must add to the great dominant motifs of the musical poem the glorification of the machine and the victorious kingdom of electricity. . . . All this will become possible when conserv- atories, lyceums, and academies of music will finally be deserted and closed, and when the study of music will have taken the character of absolute liberty/' This programme was ac- cepted by most futurists, irrespective of na- tionality.
After the War the new movement continued throughout Europe with unabated vigor. A host of writers now appeared who effectively aided the composers, and in almost every coun- try were established periodicals devoted exclu- sively to the cause of futurism. Through these persistent and systematic efforts a new public was recruited, sufficiently numerous to insure the success of a futuristic festival held in Salz- burg in August, 1922. The immediate result of tli is festival was the formation of the Interna- tional Society for Contemporary Music (I. S. C. M.), with headquarters in London, for the purpose of spreading the new cult by means of annual festivals. At the first official festival, which took place according to schedule at Salz- burg in August, 1023, 35 composers of 14 dif- ferent nationalities were represented on the programme.
On the older composers whose reputation had
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been firmly established early in the century, the War seems to have had a blighting effect. Strauss, Puccini, Elgar, and Sibelius were not silent, but they produced in the decade 1914-24 not a single work even remotely approaching the best of their earlier efforts. In fact, the beginning of their decadence antedated the out- break of the War by several years. Different is the case of Rachmaninov, by all odds the greatest of living Russian composers, who sud- denly, without having given any indication of declining power, deserted the career of the cre- ative artist for that of the virtuoso. If these men of pronounced individuality, whose earlier works have permanently enriched the literature of music, were unable to stem the rising tide of futurism, it is vain to hope for any counteract- ing influence from men of lesser ability, who almost without exception exhibit some phase or other of futurism.
In the musical development of the United States during the decade futurism played a secondary rfile. Futuristic tendencies, it must be admitted, were quite noticeable among the younger American composers; but as yet, with the exception of Leo Ornstein, these manifesta- tions avoided the furthest extremes and could still be regarded as advanced Impressionism. The chief reason why the influence of these composers on the public taste was negligible is the conservative attitude of the general public and of our great musical institutions, whose programmes, in the main, were still drawn from the works of recognized masters. While im- pressionists had frequent hearings, futurists were represented but sparingly, and only very rarely by extreme works. Of the musical cen- tres, New York, the most important, is also the most conservative. Bach, Beethoven, Schubert, Brahms, Wagner, and Tchaikovsky still held un- disputed sway, and despite determined efforts on the part of certain conductors, the New York public had not yet become convinced of the merits of Bruckner, Mahler, or Reger. This state of affairs led a small group of futurists to establish, in 1921, the International Com- posers' Guild for the purpose of producing ex- clusively works of extreme tendencies, because "the standard symphony orchestras present only the most timid and anaemic of contempo- rary productions, leaving absolutely unheard the composers who represent the true spirit of our time." In spite of very active and noisy prop- aganda this group made few converts, and the works produced at their special concerts did not find their way to the programmes of our recog- nized institutions. Although since the begin- ning of the century there had arisen in all parts of the United States numerous composers whose efforts had been duly recognized and en- couraged by the leading orchestras and choral societies, they had not succeeded in reaching their common goal, the creation of a national school of music that should be recognized as typically American. Numerous and earnest at- tempts to force such a consummation by means of prizes, competitions, and special organiza- tions producing exclusively works of native com- posers had not yielded the expected results. Nevertheless, the efforts put forth by this gen- eration of composers were by no means futile; they were preparing the soil from which, at some future day, will spring the longed-for na- tional art. Until the outbreak of the War, Berlin had been the centre of the world's musical
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activity. American artists seldom risked ap- pearances in their own country unless they had met with approval in a Berlin de*but. In this respect a complete change took place within the decade, so that a New York debut had come to be a passport not only for American artists, but also for many a European aspirant. As a natural consequence of the War a vast num- ber of the world's most famous interpretative artists sought and found success in extended tours of the United States The presence of HO many celebrities at the same time compelled managers to extend the field of operation, so that even smaller towns were visited, with the result that interest was stimulated throughout the country. Tangible proof of this new in- terest is found in the large number of newly established musical organizations of all kinds in towns which had formerly never considered such institutions a necessity.
Chamber Music. The widespread interest in chamber music throughout the United States during the decade furnishes conclusive evidence of the steadily growing appreciation of the best music. In all parts of the country numerous new organizations not only had been' formed but also successfully maintained themselves. The most notable event was the establishment of the annual Berkshire Festival, which was inaugu- lated Sept. Itf-lH, 1018. During the summer of 1917 Airs F. S Coolidge began the erection on South Mountain, near Pittsfield, Mass., of the Temple of Music, a small concert-hall with a seating capacity of 500, to be devoted exclu- sively to the performance of chamber music. At the same time she offered a pri/e of $1000 for the best string quartet to be performed at the inaugural festival Not less than 82 manu- scripts, many from European composers, were submitted. After the success of the first festival the $1000 prize was made a regular feature. The programmes of the festivals are given by famous chamber music organizations fiom all parts of the Union. On two occasions European quartets participated, the London String Quartet (1020) and the Stuttgarter Streichquartett (1922). The programmes of- fered were remarkable for variety and cath- olicity of taste, favoring no nation and no pe- riod, and ranging from Bach to the moderns of the day. At the conclusion of the festival of 1022 announcement was made that the cash prize thereafter would be awarded biennially, in the even years. In the odd years new works were to be commissioned from prominent com- posers. The first composers to be honored with such commissions were Eugene Goossens (string sextet) and Rebecca Clarke (Rhapsody for 'cello and piano), both performed at the festival of 1923. The list of prize winners was as fol- lows: 1918, Tadeus larecki, string quartet; 1910, Ernest Bloch, suite for viola and piano; 1020, Francesco Malipiero, string quartet; 1921, H. Waldo Warner, piano trio; 1022, Leo Weiner, string quartet; 1924, Wallingford Riejy- ger, La, Belle Dame flaws Mrrci, for vocal quartet and chamber orchestra. An event that should not pass unrecorded is the dissolution of the famous Kncisel Quartet, which played its last concerts at Boston (Mar. 13, 1917) and New York (April 3). Founded in 1880, with Franz Kneisel, Otto Roth, Louis Svecenski, and Fritz Giese as its original members, it plaved 32 consecutive seasons in Boston and 25 in New York, besides making numerous tours of the
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United States and two of Europe. Its influence in practically creating and then cultivating taste for chamber music in America can scarcely be overestimated. For many years it had en- joyed the reputation of one of the finest quar- tets in the world.
Community Music. Community music, at least as the term had come to be understood, was a direct result of the War. Previously there had existed, especially in Philadelphia and Chicago, isolated associations of factory work- ers organized into choral societies, some of which had attained sufficient proficency to ap- pear in public concerts. During the War the soldiers, under regular leaders, were trained in choral singing, and this practice developed a genuine liking for music. Manv ex-soldiers, after return to civil life, communicated the en- thusiasm aroused in them bv the camp songs to their fellow workers, with the result that in an incredibly short time employees of the larg- er companies in many industrial centres banded together for the cultivation of singing. Com- munity choruses sprang up even in the smaller towns and villages throughout the country. The interest in music was not confined to sing- ing; it immediately embraced the field of in- strumental music, and numerous amateur or- chestras and bands were established. By the end of 1920 the Bethlehem steel workers had recruited from among their own numbers not only a large chorus but also a complete sym- phony orchestra of almost 100 players. In the same year the employees of the Federal Reserve Bank in New York gave a complete stage per- formance of The Bohemian Girl without the as- sistance of an outsider even in the principal roles or orchestra. In some of the larger cities, where musical appreciation naturally had been spread before the War, the new movement led to the establishment of community opera (Wash- ington, Philadelphia, St. Louis, Cincinnati). In 1920 New York celebrated its first Music Week (February 1-7), when all musical or- ganizations, churches, hotels, theatres, and many individuals combined to bring music in some form or other home to everybody. At the Grand Central Palace an exhibition of musical instruments was held throughout the entire week, with lectures and recitals. The interest aroused was so general that Music Week was made a regular annual institution, and a per- manent committee of eminent musicians was ap- pointed. The example was followed immediately by almost all neighboring communities, who had their Music Week before the end of the year. Within three years the idea had been adopted by the entire country. This wide- spread interest in music induced several munic- ipalities to appropriate public funds for fur- thering various musical projects. Baltimore established a special department of Municipal Music, St. Louis a municipally subventioned summer opera, Chicago and Philadelphia mu- nicipal symphony orchestras, etc. In New York a movement was on foot in 1924 for the erec- tion of a municipal conservatory, and the Music- al Alliance of the United States had launched a movement for the establishment of a ministry of fine arts and a national conservatory in Washington.
Festivals. After the sudden interruption of the performances in the summer of 1914, the theatre dedicated to Wagner in Bayreuth re- mained closed for 10 years. During 1023 Sieg-
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fried Wagner gave concerts in many German cities, raising funds for the restoration of the theatre and the resumption of the performances. For* the same purpose ne made a concert tour of the United States early in 1924. In the sum- mer of 1924 the festival was resumed (July 22- August 20) with performances of the Ring dramas, Meister singer, and Parsifal. After 1914 the chorus of the Bethlehem (Pa.) Bach Festivals was gradually augmented, until in 1924 it numbered 250. Up to 1920 the pro- grammes had been selected exclusively from the choral works of Bach, but in that year in- strumental works were included. The innova- tion was received with favor and was adopted as a fixed policy. In 1917 the chorus partic- ipated in a Bach-Beethoven festival in New York arranged by the Philharmonic Society, and in the following year in a Bach -Wagner festival of the Symphony Society.
Albert A. Stanley, conductor of the Ann Arbor festivals since their inception (1893), resigned in 1921 and was succeeded by Earle V. Moore. An annual festival lasting four days was founded in Newark in 1915 by Mor- timer C. Wiske and conducted by him thereafter. At the North Shore Festival in Evanston, 111., a prize of $1000 was established in 1921. It was to be awarded annually for the best orches- tral score submitted by an American composer, the successful work to have its first performance at the festival and then to be included in one of the regular concerts of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra during the following winter. The winners were Camille Zeckwer with Jade Butter- flies (1922), Felix Borowski with Youth (1923), and Charles M. Loeffler with Memories of Child- hood (1924). For the first time in its history, the annual festival at Worcester, Mass., was omitted in 1918, on account of an epidemic of influenza that swept the eastern States in the fall of that year. There was no festival in 1922, because the time was permanently changed from September to April. Arthur Mees resigned as conductor in 1919, and was succeeded by Nelson P. Coffin, who died shortly before the festival of 1923. The latter was under the di- rection of Arthur J. Bassett and J. Vernon Butler. In 1924 Henry Hadley was elected regular conductor.
Mechanical ^Reproduction of Music. There is not the least doubt of the fact that the in- troduction and rapid perfection of the player- piano and phonograph contributed in a large measure to the development of the public taste for better music. The former had been brought practically to perfection even before the War. This is true of the Welte-Mignon Duo-Art and Ampico reproducing pianos, which differ from player-pianos in that they faithfully reproduce that subtle quality termed the individuality of the artist. On Dec. 10, 1918, the Chicago Sym- phony Orchestra performed Saint-Saens's con- certo in G minor for piano and orchestra with Harold Bauer as soloist. The latter, however, was not actually present, but was represented by his Duo-Art record. At a concert of the New York PMlharmenic Society (Apr. 23, 1919), the soloist, Leo Orn stein, sat motionless on the stage listening to his own reproduction of the first movement of Mendelssohn's Con- certo in G minor, after which he took his seat at the instrument and played the remaining movements in person. In records for the p*»onograph, the decade witnessed a tremendous
improvement. It may be said that up to 1914 satisfactory records had been made only of solo voices or solo instruments. The accompani- ment, whether for piano or orchestra, left much to be desired in regard to clearness and proper balance with the solo part. Reproductions of choruses sounded blurred, while orchestral rec- ords failed to reproduce the timbre of the dif- ferent instruments. Especially wonderful was the progress made since then in the reproduc- tion of orchestral masses, so that in the best records a practiced ear can detect such subtle differences in timbre as between an oboe and an English horn. Almost all the great sym- phony orchestras had played for the recording companies. One great problem, however, still remained for the manufacturers to solve. So far no one had succeeded in reproducing the real, resonant tone of the piano; even the best records sounded as if the artists were playing on a harpischord or a harp.
Almost from the day of its inception broad- casting by radio became an important factor in the dissemination of good music. The first concert heard over the radio was broadcast by Station KDKA in Pittsburgh, on Nov. 3, 1920, and soon stations all over the country were broadcasting music. The beginning was made with dance music and popular songs of the day, but before long, in response to numerous requests, symphony concerts and entire operatic performances were broadcast. The demand for the better music rapidly assumed such propor- tions that managers, especially those of famous -artists, fearing a decrease of attendance at con- certs, inserted a clause in all contracts restrain- ing their artists from giving their services gratis. Composers and publishers also began to demand payment of the usual fees on all works controlled by them. These demands the radio companies declared themselves unable to meet, as they derived no income whatever from the host of listeners The result was that dur- ing the last months of 1923 there was a decided dearth of good music transmitted by radio. However, frequent conferences of representatives of the American Telephone and Telegraph Com- pany (Station VVEAF, New York) and of man- agers and musicians finally resulted in the ap- pointment of a committee who issued a general appeal for voluntary contributions from inter- ested listeners. The public responded quickly and generously. With a considerable fund at hand a plan was worked out for the broadcast- ing of concerts of famous stars, beginning with the opening of the concert season in the fall of 1924.
Opera. The history of opera during the dec- ade is a record of almost feverish activity bar- ren of any artistic results. Of the enormous number of new works produced in all the opera houses of the world, especially after the Armi- stice, not one achieved an emphatic and general success promising an addition to what may be termed the standard oneratic repertoire. The vast majority of these novelties did not even outlive the year of their original production. Of the two foremost living dramatic composers, Puccini brought out La Rondine (1917) and the triptych II Tabarro, Suor Angelica, Gianni Schicchi (1918); Strauss, a revised version of Ariadne auf ATofl?o« (1916) and Die Frau ohne Schatten (1919), winning in each case only a suooes d' €8 time. To the already formidable list of his failures Mascagni added Lodoletta (1917)
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and II Piccolo Marat (1921). The more promi- nent among the composer! whose works sur- vived for several seasons and were heard in more than one city were d'Albert, with Die Toten Augen (1010; in the United States, 1023), Die Revolut ionshochzeit (1910), Sirocco (1021), and Marieken von Nymwegen (1023); Pfitzner, Palestrina (1017); Schillings, Mona Lisa (1015; in the United States, 1023), Zan- donai, La Ma delta Fineatra (1910) and Qiuli- etta e Romeo (1022). On May 1, 1024, the much heralded and long delayed premiere of Boito's Nerone actually took place at La Scala, in Milan What had excited international in- terest in this event was the fact that for the last 25 years there had been constant reports of all kinds regarding this work, of which no one, not even the composer's intimate friends, had seen or heard a note. Expectation had been raised so high that nothing less than a masterpiece of Wagnerian poxver could have survived the ordeal. The consensus of critical opinion was that the premiere was a "magnif- icent failure." In spite of the fact that in the United States opera received a large share of puhlic attention, New York and Chicago were still the only cities supporting a permanent operatic institution Other cities were depend- ent on short visits from traveling companies, some of which, especially the San Carlo Opera Company and the Society of American Ringers, were notable for the excellence of their en- semble. The taste of the general public showed a decided preference for the standard works, so that the production of novelties was left al- most exclusively to the two permanent organiza- tions. Neither of these institutions was fortu- nate with new works; not one of their novelties maintained itself in the repertoire. The fiasco of the only futuristic opera attempted so far, Prokofiev's Lore for Three Oranges, by the Chi- cago company (1021), was such as to deter American managers from further experiments in this line, at least in the immediate future.
Chicago Opera Association. After the death of the general manager, Cleofonte Campanini (1010), his duties were divided between IT. M. Johnson and Gino Marinuzxi, as executive and artistic director respectively. Complications arising from this dual directorship led, early in 1021, to the appointment of Mary Garden as sole director. Under her management the fric- tion became even more acute, and a deficit of $800,000 at the end of the season brought about the dissolution of the company (1022), after 12 years of splendid artistic achievement. Im- mediately the Chicago Civic Opera Company, with Samuel Insull as president, was organized and acquired all the properties and practically the entire personnel of its predecessor. While there was no change in regard to artistic poli- cies, a radical departure in administration was inaugurated by vesting the executive power in the finance committee rather than in a single individual. Giorgio Polacco was made artistic director.
During the War the works of Warmer had been excluded from the repertoire. In 1920 Lohengrin was restored, in an English version, and was followed by Die Walkure (1021). After that, these and other works were sung again in the original German. During 1018-22 the regular season included a four weeks1 visit to New York. The year 1922 is memorable for a transcontinental tour (January- April), which
was as brilliant artistically as it proved disas- trous financially. Three operas by foreign com- posers had their world premiere in Chicago: Lazzari's Le Sauteriot (1918), FeVrier's Gis- monda, (1019), and Prokofiev's Love for Three Oranges (1921). Native composers were en- couraged by the production of Buchhalter's A Lover's Knot (1016), Hadley's Axora (1917), Nevin's The Daughter of the Forest (1918), De Koven's Rip Van Winkle (1920), and Stearns's The Snow Bird (1023). Two ballets by Amer- ican composers were given in 1010, Borowski's Boudour and Carpenter's The Birthday of the Infanta. The following foreign works were given for the first time in the United States: Gnecchi's Cassandra (1014); Saint-SaSns's De- janire (1015); Massenet's ClfopAtre (1010); Gunsbourg's Le Vieil Aigle (1017); Catalini's Lorclry and Montemezzi's La Wave (1010); Ravel's VHeure Espagnole, Messager's Madame Chrysantheme, Erlanger's Aphrodite, Marinuz- zi's Jacquerie and Leoncavallo's Edipo Rd (1020)
Metropolitan Opera House (New York). The decade at the Metropolitan Opera House, under Giulio Gatti-Casazza as general manager, was a period of unexampled prosperity. There was no annual deficit to be met. Year by year the number of subscribers increased. No promises were made that were not strictly fulfilled. During the period of the War the works of Wagner and Strauss were temporarily with- drawn, but, beginning in 1020, they were re- stored, one after the other, to the repertoire. The policy of producing every season a work by an American composer, inaugurated in 1010, was maintained until 1020, except for the years 1915 and 1016. Thus the following operas were brought out: De Koven, The Canterbury Pilgrims (1017); Cadman, Shanewis (1018); Breil, The Legend, and Hugo, The Temple Dancer (1010); Hadley, Cleopatra's Night (1920). A ballet by an American, Gilbert's The Dance in Place Congo, was performed in 1018. Four world premieres of works by for- eign composers are to be recorded: Giordano, Madame tians Ge/ne (1015) ; Granados, Ooyes- cas (1910) ; Puccini, II Tabarro, 8uor Angelica, and Gianni ftchicchi (1018); Wolff, I'Oiseau Bleu (1010). Following are the foreign operas given their American premierefl: Montemez/i's L'Amore <lei tre Re, Charpentier's Julien, and Wolf- Ferrari's VAmore Medico (1014); Lcorii's L'Oracolo and Borodin's Prince Igor (1015); Bizet's Les Pecheurs des Perles, G luck's Iphi- (jenie auf Tauris, and Zandonai's Francesca da 'Rimini (1010); Rabaud's Marouf (1017); Liszt's The Legend of Kt Elizabeth and Mas- cagni's Lodoletta (1018) ; Leroux's La Reine Fiammette (1910); Leoncavallo's Zaza and Tchaikovsky's Eugen Oniegin (1020) ; Weiss's The Pohsh Jeir and Korngold's Die tote Ktadt (1021); Mozart's Cost Fan Tutte (1022); Vit- tndini's Anima- Allegra and Schillings's Mona Lisa (1023); Riccitelli's Compagnacci (1924). The following operas, produced by other or- ganizations than the Chicago and Metropolitan companies, complete the list of American premi- eres during the decade: 1914, Mozart's Bastien et Bastienne (New York) ; 1016, Parker's Fairy- land (Los Angeles) ; 1916, Moniuszko's Verbum Nobile, (Philadelphia) and Mozart's The Tm* presasrio (New York) ; 1917, Donizetti's Cam- panella di Xotte, Pergolesi's La Servo- Padrona, c*oiinoir« Le Mfderin malgrt Lui (all in New
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York); 1918, Hadley's Bianca (New York); 1919, Vives's Maruwa and Los Bohemias and Mesaager's Monsieur Beaucaire (both in New York) ; 1922, Da rgomyzb sky's Russalka and Rimsky-Koraakov's Tsarskaya Xeviesta (San Francisco) ; 1923, Moniuszko's Halka, d' Al- bert's Die Tot en Augen, and Kienzl's Der Evan- gelimann (all in Chicago).
Oratorio. The steady decline of public inter- est in orator ia, which began long before the close of the last century, went on unchecked after 1914, witli the result that the few works written in this form were produced by serious musicians mostly little known to the public Even the masterpieces of Httndel, Haydn, and Mendelssohn were heard less and less fre- quently.
Orchestras. While in the United States the opera formerly engaged the principal interest of the general public, the decade 1914-24 wrought a change in favor of orchestral music. All the older organizations vastly increased the number of their concerts, so that the orchestral season extended from October to May. In 1914 the Boston Symphony Orchestra had no rival in this country. Even then it was no secret that the perfection of its ensemble was due to daily rehearsing. Unfortunately no other orchestra at that time had a patron like Colonel Higgin- son who would bear the enormous expense in- volved The longer musical season provided the natural solution of the problem, so that in 1024 we could boast not one but several premier orchestras unsurpassed anywhere in the world. Daily rehearsals had produced the identical result in all cases Visits of orchestras to other cities and exchange of conductors had engendered a spirit of rivalry which makes for supreme efficiency The soloist, formerly an in- dispensable attraction at every symphony con- cert, had come to occupy a secondary position. In 1912 the Boston Symphony Orchestra, under Dr. Muck, made the first successful experiment in giving concerts without the aid of soloists. From that time the practice became so common, that in 1924 soloists were engaged for perhaps not more than half the season's concerts. This widespread and intelligent interest in the music itself, rather than in the executant, had cre- ated a new, collective method of subvention ing orchestras. The cost of maintaining a first-class organization is so heavy that the income from admissions is in every case insufficient to meet expenses. The burden of the inevitable annual deficit, formerly borne by some wealth v patron especially interested (e.g., Higginson, Carnegie, Flagler), was being assumed by several guaran- tors, each contributing a relatively small amount In the latter years more than one of our premier orchestras was threatened with dissolution because of inability to meet the high coat of maintenance. In every case a sufficient number of public spirited citizens came forward to avert a serious loss to the community And when one considers that from the conclusion of the War every year new symphony orchestras were established throughout the country, he cannot but be impressed with the development of public taste during the decade
Boston Symphony Orchestra. The refusal of Dr Muck, in the fall of 1917, to play the na- tional anthem before the concert, was the be- ginning of a period of storm and stress. He resigned at the end of the season. At the same time Colonel Higginson severed his relations
with the orchestra, delegating his powers and responsibilities to a board of nine directors. More than 20 German players, who had failed to take out naturalization papers, were dis- missed. In 1918-19 Henri R a baud was the conductor; under him the orchestra rapidly deteriorated. When Pierre Monteux, in the fall of 1919, assumed control, he found a de- moralized body of men, many of whom rebelled and deserted before the end of the season, so that out of a total of 100 performers only 67 remained for the final concerts. In addition, a deficit of $131,000 brought the organization to the verge of dissolution (April, 1920). An appeal by the directors secured not only this amount but also a guarantee fund, pledged by 200 contributors, for five years. With a thor- oughly reorganized and practically new or- chestra Monteux began the difficult task of re- gaining the lost prestige When Sergei Kus- sevitsky became conductor, in 1924, he found that his predecessor's efforts had been crowned with success
Chicago Symphony Orchestra. In 1914 a pension fund was established through the gift of $100,000 by Mrs. E. S. Coolidge, who donated the same amount also the next year. In 1923 Clyde M. Carr bequeathed to the organization $T,000,000 to be used at the discretion of the trustees. Tn the spring of 1923 a number of music lovers saved the orchestra from disband- ing by assuming responsibility for a consider- able increase in the salary of the men demanded by the musical union
Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra. After the internment of the conductor. Dr. Kunwald (January, 1918). the remaining concerts of the season were given under guest conductors In 1918-22 Eugene Ysaye was conductor. His suc- cessor was Fritz Reiner
Minneapolis Symphony Orchestra. In 1922 Max Oberhoffer resigned and was succeeded by Henri Verbrugghen. At the same time the or- chestra widened its field of activity by adding a series of 16 concerts in St. Paul, a aeries of 25 popular Sunday concerts and 5 educational concerts for young people
National Symphony Orchestra. This organ ization was founded in New York in 1910 as the New Symphony Orchestra, under Edgar Varese, for the exclusive production of futuristic works. The complete failure of the first con- cert (April 11) so alarmed the guarantors that they dismissed Varese and engaged Bodan/ky, who played only standard works at the remain- ing concerts. His success led to the incorpora- tion of the orchestra as the National Symphony Orchestra, beginning its career in October. 1919 In the summer of 1920 it was engaged for the series of open-air concerts at the Stadium of the College of the City of New York, under Walter Rothwell as guest conductor. As Bo- da nzky's duties at the Metropolitan Opera House did not allow him sufficient time, the directors engaged Mengelberg for the second half of the season (January-March, 1921) He made a sensational success and remained with the organization after its amalgamation with the Philharmonic Society.
New York Philharmonic Society. The amal- gamation of the society with the National Symphony Orchestra in 1921 led to a complete reorganization Many of the older men were retired on pension, the personnel was increased to 125 per former s, and a new schedule for in-
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tensive rehearsals was adopted. Mengelberg was engaged as coordinate conductor with Stransky, the former directing the last half of the season, the latter the first half. In 1923 Stransky resigned and was succeeded by Willem Van Hoogstraten. From 1910-20 William Humiston was associate conductor; after those years the position was filled by Henry Hadley. During the summer of 1022 the entire orchestra was engaged for the open-air concerts at the Stadium; the first half of the series was led by Hfldley; the second, by Van Hoogstraten In 1923 Van HoogRtraten was conductor of the en- tire series. With the proceeds of two festival concerts celebrating the eightieth anniversary of the foundation of the Society (April, 1922) a benefit fund was established for the mem- bers.
New York Symphony Orchestra. Under its regular conductor, Walter Damro»ch, the or- chestra made a most successful tour of France, Italy, Belgium, and England in May and June, 1920 In 1921 and 1922 Albert Coates directed several concerts as guest conductor. Bruno Walter appeared in the same capacity in 1923- 24, and Vladimir Golschmann in 1024.
Philadelphia Symphony Orchestra. In 1916 Edward Bok donated to the orchestra $250,000 and pledged himself to pay any deficit for the next five years. In 1918 a regular series of five conceits in New York was established, the number of which was increased to 10 in 1921. D": ing the absence of Leopold Stokowski as guest conductor in Paris, in 1923, his place was taken by Georges Enesco.
HI. Loins Symphony Orchestra. After the death of Max Zach, in"l921, the remaining con- certs of the season were led by guest conductors. Fiom the fall of 1921 Rudolf Ganz was regular conductor
Following is a list of the more important new symphony orchestras established during the decade. 1914: Detroit S. OM Weston Gales 1914-18, then Ossip Oahrilowitsch ; 191G: Balti- more S. O, Gustav Strube; 1918: Cleveland S. O., Nikolai Sokolov; 1919- Los Angeles Philh. O., Walter Tlotliwell; 1920: Nashville S. O., F. A. Henkel; Toledo S. O., Lewis Clement; 1921: Erie S. O., Henry Vincent, Buffalo S. O, Arnold Cornelissen ; 1922- Svracuse S. O., Wil- liam Berwald; Watertown $. O, Patrick Con- way, Rait Lake City Philh. O., Charles Shep- ard; Wichita S. O , P II. Flath, 1923: State S O. (New York), Josef Stransky; Rochester Philh. O., Eugene Goossens and Albert Coates aa guest conductors; Civic S. O. of Philadelphia, Vassili Leps; Atlantic City Philh. Soc., Louis Colmans; American National O. (New York), Howard Barlow.
MUSICAL RECORDS. See Music, Mechan- ical Reproduction.
MUSIC WEEK. See Music, Community Music.
MUSSOLINI, BENITO (1884- ). An Ital- ian statesman, founder of the Fascisti. He was born at Predappio-Forli and educated at the Salesian College in Faenza and the University of Lausanne (Switzerland). When he began his career he was a Marxian socialist and was expelled from Switzerland and also from Aus- tria on account of his views. He returned to his birthplace and there started Lotta di Classe and later became the editor of the Avanti. He was also a director of the Italian Communist party. At the outbreak of the War in 1914, he took the side of the Allies and urged that Italy enter the conflict against Germany. He was ex- pelled from the Socialist party and at once started a new paper, the famous Popolo d'ltalia. Fighting in the War as a corporal in the in- fantry, he was wounded, decorated, and dis- charged. Later he returned to his editorial desk. In 1919, when the wave of communism swept over Italy and the government at Rome seemed unable to combat the disorder prevalent in the country, Mussolini raged against the traitors who were ruining Italy; on Mar 23, 1919, he founded the first "Fascio di Combat- timento," which was later to be known collec- tively as the Fascisti, from the Roman fasces. Officers and soldiers rallied to his support, and by 1922 there were about 4,000,000 Fascisti in Italy. Civil war raged during 1922 between the Fascisti and the Communists. Mussolini's le- gions reopened factories, stopped strikes, and broke up trade unions. By August the power of communism was broken In October, 1922, Mussolini declared he would take the govern- ment by force if it were not given to him will- ingly. On Oct 30, 1922, the King made him prime minister. He made drastic reforms dur- ing 1923, and in the April elections of 1924 the Fascisti received 65 per cent of the votes cast. See FASCISM and ITALY.
MUTATION THEORY. See ZOOLOGY.
MUZZEY, DAVID SAVILLE (1870- ). An American historian and author, born at Lex- ington, Mass., and educated at Harvard Uni- versity, Union Theological Seminary, New York and Columbia Universities, and in Berlin and Paris. After serving as tutor in mathematics at Robert College in Constantinople for one year, he became a teacher of Latin and Greek in the Ethical Culture School of New York. In 1905 he was appointed head of the department of history at Barnard College and was succes- sively associate, associate professor, and profes- sor; the last office he assumed in 1920. He was a member of several learned societies and wrote Rise of the New Testament (1900); Spiritual Heroes (1902) ; Beginners9 Latin Book (1907); American History (1911); State, Church, and School in France (1911); Life of Thomas Jefferson (1918); and The United States of America (1922).
See ARCHAEOLOGY.
N
N&NSEN, FBIDTJOF (1861- ). A Norwegian Arctic explorer (see VOL. XVI). He was active dur- ing the War and was chairman of the Norwegian Association for the Nations in 1918. In the following year he proposed to the Allies the formation of a central commission for the supply of food to Russia. This was rejected by the Bolshevist government, which would not agree to the Al- lies' conditions that hostilities should first cease. He was asked by the Council of the League of Nations in 1920 to investigate prob- lems in connection with the repatriation of prisoners of war; on this subject he prepared an exhaustive report. From 1920 to 1923 he had general charge of the direction of relief for Russian refugees. He published Through Si- beria in 1914.
NAPHTHA. See PETROLEUM. NASHVILLE. The capital of Tennessee. The population rose from 110,364 in 1910 to 118,342 in 1920, and to 121,128, by estimate of the Bureau of the Census for 1923. The city changed its form of government to the commis- sion-manager plan in 1918. A nine-hole munic- ipal golf course was constructed in 1923. In 1924 the city, in cooperation with Davidson County and the State of Tennessee, was engaged in building, at a cost of $2,225,000, a memorial to the soldiers in the late War, which occupied two blocks in the centre of the city and was to contain an auditorium seating 2500 persons. A temporary replica of the Parthenon which had been built some years previously, was re- constructed in more permanent form during the decade.
NATAL PROVINCE. See SOUTH AFRICA, UNION OF.
NATHAN, GEORGE JEAN (1882- ). An American author and dramatic critic, born in Fort Wayne, Ind., and educated at Cornell Uni- versity and the University of Bologna, Italy. From 1905 he has been connected with various newspapers He was dramatic critic, with Huneker, of Puck (1915-16), and of the Smart Set Magazine (1908-23). During 1914-23 he was editor of Smart Set with H. L. Mencken, and in 1924 he started with Mencken a new magazine. The American Mercury. His knowl- edge of the French, German, and English stage, and his keen observation, perspicacity, and dis- criminating sense of humor, have made him one of the leaders in criticism in the United States Some of his books are The Eternal Mystery (1913); Another Book on the Ttieatre (1916): Bottoms Up (1917) ; Mr. George Jean Nathan
906
Presents (1917); A Book Without a Title (1918); The Popular Theatre (1918); Comedi- ans All (1919) ; Heliogabolus, with H. L. Menck- en (1920); The American Credo, with H. L. Mencken (1920); The Theatre, the Drama, the Girls ( 1921 ) ; The Critic and the Drama ( 1922) .
NATHAN, ROBERT (1894- ). An Amer- ican author, born in New York City. He was educated in private schools in the United States and Switzerland and took graduate courses at Harvard. His published writings include Peter Kindred (1919); Autumn (1920); Youth Grow* Old (1922); and The Puppet Master (1923) He also composed songs and a sonata for the violin.
NATIONAL AERONAUTIC FEDERA- TION. See Af'JiONAVTics
NATIONAL ARMY. See ARMIES AND ABMY ORGANIZATION.
NATIONAL CATHOLIC WELFARE COUNCIL. See ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON UNI- FORM STATE LAW. See LAW, PROGRESS
OF THE.
NATIONAL DEFENSE ACTS. See ARMIES AND ARMY ORGANIZATION
NATIONAL FORESTS. See FORESTRY.
NATIONAL GUARD. See ARMIES AND ARMY ORGANIZATION.
NATIONALIST TURKS. See CALIPHATE
NATIONAL PARKS. See PARKS, NA- TIONAL.
NATIONAL PROBATION ASSOCIATION. See JUVENILE COURTS.
NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL. A co operative, noncommercial organization estab- lished in 1913 as an outgrowth of the safety congress held under the auspices of the Associa- tion of Iron and Steel Engineers in Milwaukee. The council consists of an association of com- panies and individuals active in promoting safety in industrial establishments, on the streets, and in the homes. Annual meetings are held in which matters relating to this object are discussed. The meeting of 1915 was held in Philadelphia. There were present representa- tives from the mines, railroads, public utilities, and industrial establishments. Each of these groups held sectional meetings to discuss their technical problems. The Eighth Annual Safety Congress was held in Cleveland in October, 1919. There were meetings of the 19 sections of the Council representing the various industries of the United States. The programme for 1919 included the extension of the work into many new fields. In 1920 the National Safety News, orpran of the Council, was enlarged from a one-
NATIONAL SYMPHONY OBCHESTBA
907
NATURAL SELECTION
sheet bulletin to a 12-page magazine and began an active campaign for spreading safety propa- ganda throughout the country. The annual meeting of 1020 was held in Milwaukee. In J920 the council continued active in safety propaganda, with great success. Extensive re- search was continued into the particular haz- 'ards and safety practices in the construction and management of particular equipment. The con- gress of the Council in 1922 was held in Pe- ,troit, Mich. Over 2000 members met to discuss 'their problems and to hear speakers of national reputation. Work with schools was vigorously carried on. Through a publication entitled Edu- cation in Accident Prevention: Methods and Results, the city superintendents in all cities of 20,000 or more population weie reached, and in many cases a definite safety plan was ^incorporated in the curriculum Gratifying progress was reported in the activities of the organization in 1923. Two million copies of workmen's bulletins were distributed during the year, at the rate of 36 new and different ones 'per month. The magazine grew to 04 pages. The 12th annual congress was held in Buffalo 7n October. Over 3500 delegates were in at- ^endance, representing every State in the Union Tind every major industry in North America. The Council in this year had 23 specialized sec- tions relating to all phases of industry. Its membership was about 4000, operating 8000 in- dustrial plants, and employing more than 7,- 000,000 men Community safety councils had by this time been organized in 00 cities to carry on public and industrial safety work in each community. Combined population of these cities where organized safety programmes are under way totaled 25,000,000 in July, 1924. L. A. DeBlois was elected president in 1923, and C. B. Auel was chosen vice president in charge of general activities. The managing di- rector and secretary was W. H. Cameron.
NATIONAL SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA. See Music, Orchestras.
NATURAL GAS. Although fear a were ex- pressed as to the ultimate exhaustion of natu- ral gas in the years 1914-24, consumption in- creased, and systems of pipe lines were developed from the leading production centres, of which West Virginia, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and California were perhaps the most impor- tant. In 1913 the consumption of natural gas in the United States was 581,898,239,000 cubic feet, 38 per cent of which was consumed by domestic consumers and 02 per cent by indus- trial consumers. The average price per 1000 cubic feet received by distributors at this time was $.051. In 1914 'the natural gas consumed was 591,867,000,000 cubic feet, and from this time it steadily increased until in 1920 the maximum consumption of 798,210,000,000 cubic •feet was scored. In the following year, 1921, there was a decline in the consumption, which then amounted to 662,052,000,000 cubic feet, and the market value of the gas used was about $175,000,000, a decrease about $25,000,000 in the value from 1920.
At this time there were more than 2,500,000 domestic consumers of natural gas and about 21,000 industrial concerns using it as fuel. In the following year, 1922, 762,546,000,000 cubic feet were consumed in the United States, at an estimated value of $84,873,000 at the wells and of $221,535,000 at the points of consumption. By 1919 the cost at the point of distribution
had increased to $.216 per 1000 cubic feet, and in 1922 it was $.291 per 1000 cubic feet. In 1922 the average charge for domestic consump- tion was $.499, an increase of more than $.15 in the previous four years. The 1922 consump- tion was some 15 per cent more than that of
1921 but 4 per cent less than the amount con- sumed in the record year of 1920. The five leading States in production were West Virginia, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Louisiana, and Cali- fornia. The amount of production did not measure the relative consumption of the various States, as Pennsylvania in 1922 led as a con- sumer, followed by Ohio, Oklahoma, California, and West Virginia. There was also an increased interstate movement of natural gas, which, by 1922, had amounted to 179,000,000,000 cubic feet. West Virginia, which contributed 25 per cent of the total production and consumed only 10 per cent, contributed 60 per cent of the gas transported to other States, where the average price per 1000 cubic feet in 1913 was $.051 at the point of distribution.
In 1924 the industry had developed to a stage where the production and transporta- tion of natural gas was no longer characterized by wastefulness and inefficiency. Various meth- ods were adopted to conserve this fuel, as it was realized that while it was fast disap- pearing it was a commercially valuable natural resource.
In addition to domestic and industrial uses as fuel, an important branch of the industry was the manufacture of gasoline from natural gas. In 1911, when the United States Geological Survey collected its statistics for gasoline from natural gas for the first time, it was reported that the year's production of gasoline thus ob- tained amounted to 7,425,839 gallons valued at $531,704, or $.0716 per gallon. This gasoline represented the output of 176 plants conducted by 132 operators, with a total daily capacity of 37,100 gallons, and employing an estimated volume of natural gas of 2,475,697,000 cubic feet, which was valued at $176,901. The aver- age yield of gasoline per 1000 cubic feet was 3 gallons. This industry steadily increased, so that in 1914 the amount of gasoline produced was 42,052,632 gallons valued at $3,105,909. By
1922 the production of natural gas and gasoline amounted to 505,832,000 gallons, valued at the plants at $72,711,063, or an average of $ 144 per gallon. To produce this gasoline, 545,000,000,000 cubic feet of natural gas were treated, or ap- proximately 71 per cent of the total quantity consumed for the year. Gasoline from natural gas was produced by what is known as the com- pression process, which in 1922 accounted for 285,670,163 gallons; by the absorption process, by which were manufactured 182.209,056 gal- lons; by a combination process, which produced 36,035,999 gallons; and by a drip process, which produced 1,916,782 gallons. See CHEMIRTRY, OBCANIC.
Bibliography. Besides the publications of the United States Geological Survey and the United States Bureau of Mines, which are gen- erally available, reference may be made to L. C. Lichty, Measurement Compression and Trans- mission of Natural Gas (New York, 1924), and the chapters on natural gas in The Handbook of the Petroleum Industry, 2 vols., edited bv D. T. Day (New York, 1922). This volume discusses the manufacture of gasoline from natural gas.
NATURAL SELECTION. See ZOOLOGY.
NATTKANN
908
NAVIES 0V THE WOBLB
KATJKANN, (JOSEPH) FRHDBICH (1860- 1919). A German publicist, prominent in the war literature of his country (see VOL. XVI). His last works are Bulgarien und Mitteleuropa (1914); Deutschland und Frankreich (1914); Mitteleuropa, the famous work in which he out- lined a vast Central European empire for Ger- many (1915); Wie Wir Uns im Kriege Ver- andern (1910); Kriegs- und Heimats Chronik, in collaboration with Dr. Gertrud BUumer (1916-17); Der Weg eum Volkstaat (1918); and Gestalten und Gestalter (1919).
NATJBTJ. See PACIFIC OCEAN ISLANDS.
NAVAL AfiBONATJTICS. See NAVIES OF THE WORLD, United States.
NAVAL OPERATIONS. See WAR IN Eu- BOPE, Naval Operations.
NAVAL PBOGBESS. See NAVIES OF THE WORLD; VESSEL, NAVAL; GUN, NAVAL; GUN- NERY, NAVAL; NAVIGATION; PROJECTILE,
NAVAL VESSEL. See VESSEL, NAVAL.
NAVIES OF THE WOBLD. The approval in 1923 of the Five Power Naval Pact for the limitation of armaments by the Governments of France and Italy put that treaty in force, as the Governments of the United States, Great Britain, and Japan had given their assent soon after the conclusion of the Conference. While its terms only then became binding on the sig- natories, no one of the five powers had in any way contravened any of them since the Pact was originally signed by the diplomats at the Dis- armament Conference. Not only did new work cease, but scrapping of the older vessels desig- nated for such a fate by the Pact had to a con- siderable extent been carried out. Scrapping of the new vessels was proceeding at a rapid rate in 1924. The general condition of the more important navies of the world on July 1, 1924, was briefly as follows.
Argentina. The navy consists of 2 dread- naught battleships of 27,600 tons (12 12-inch guns) completed in 1914; four armored cruisers of 6800 to 7100 tons, completed 1895-97; three old protected cruisers of 2750 to 4800 tons, com- pleted 1892-97; two old monitors of 2336 tons, completed 1892-93; 8 destroyers of 1100 to 1200 tons, completed 1911; several large gun- boats, river gunboats, transports, old torpedo boats, etc. It was proposed to refit the battle- ships in the United States and to order about 12 large destroyers.
Austria possessed neither navy nor sea- coast but had four armed patrol vessels on the Danube.
Australia. Since the close of the War, the Australian navy was steadily reduced. Late plans called for the sale of 24 out of the 34 vessels on the navy list. Those to be retained were four light cruisers of about 5500 tons, com- pleted 1912-20; one flotilla leader of 1600 tons, completed 1917; and five destroyers of 1250 tons, 36 knots, completed 1919. At last accounts in 1924 there still remained on the list six sub- marines of 1820 tons, completed 1917-19; sev- eral destroyers of 700 tons, and 3 1250-ton sloops, completed 1915. These were all effective vessels and in good condition. The battle cruiser Australia was scrapped in accordance with the terms of the Five Power Naval Pact. From statements which appeared in the British and Australian press it appeared that Australia de- sired to depend for defense chiefly on the Brit- ish fleet but would pay her share of the cost of defense by the Royal Navy.
Brazil. The Brazilian Congress authorized the construction of a training-ship, a mine transport, and a surveying ship. The Minister of Marine proposed the construction of a battle- ship of 35,000 tons, a cruiser of 10,000 tons, 5 destroyers, 5 submarines, an aircraft service, and some mine-layers and sweepers. The navy in 1924 consisted of 2 battleships of 19,281 tons (12 12-inch guns), completed in 1910; 2 ar- mored coast defense vessels, 1900-01; 2 light cruisers of 3100 tons and 27 knots, 1910; 2 old cruisers; 4 river gunboats; 1 mine-layer; 2 river monitors; 10 destroyers of 550 tons, com- pleted in 1908-10; 1 destroyer of 950 tons, 1913; 1 torpedo boat, 1907; and 3 submarines, 1914.
Canada. Having from motives of economy reduced her naval, military, and air establish- ments to almost nothing, Canada consolidated them under the new Ministry of Defense. The naval force in 1924 consisted of 2 destroyers and 4 mine-sweepers, half based at Halifax and half at Equimault, where they were used to train the Canadian naval reserve which was to act as a nucleus in case future naval expansion should be found necessary.
Chile. The navy consists of one modern battleship of 28,000 tons, 10 14-inch guns, 23 knots speed, completed in 1015; 1 old battleship of 6000 tons; 2 old armored cruisers of 7000 and 8500 tons; 5 old protected cruisers of 2000 to 4500 tons; 4 flotilla leaders of 1700 to 1850 tons, completed in 1912-14; 7 small destroyers, 3 torpedo boats; 2 submarines, 1913. It was said in 1924 that notwithstanding their age, the vessels of the Chilean navy were in serviceable condition and that the efficiency of the personnel was excellent.
China. The Chinese navy as a unified force no longer existed. There were many small cruisers, gunboats, destroyers, torpedo boats, etc. Some vessels were controlled by the Can- ton government; some by the government at Peking; others were a law unto themselves or had unknown affiliations. The natural result was a breakdown of morale and discipline as well as a deterioration of the vessels from lark of care and of means for effecting repairs and preservation.
Denmark. In the naval budget for 1923-24, 10,342,000 crowns were allotted for new con- struction, including aircraft and aviation sup- plies. The new construction comprised 2 sub- marines and 1 lighthouse tender and ice break- er. The Danish navy consisted of 5 armored coast defense vessels of 2200 to 4100 tons; 4 small cruisers of 1300 to 3000 tons; about 15 mine-layers and sweepers; and various auxiliary vessels. The personnel had a high reputation for efficiency.
France. After a long delay, the French gov- ernment signed the Five Power Naval Pact for the limitation of naval armaments. As France and Italy were the real gainers by the carrying out of the Pact, their attitudes toward it were rather remarkable. Were it not for the Pact, the United States, Great Britain, and Japan would soon have possessed navies of such strength that those of France and Italy would have descended to relative impotence. The United States alone scrapped tonnage of six times the fighting value of existing French dreadnaughts. Instead of possessing a navy in 1925 of 10 times the power of France, the United States restricts itself to 3 times. Great Britain
NAVTES OF THE WORLD
909
and Japan made great if considerably less re- ductions.
The building programme under construction in France in 1024 consisted of 3 light cruisers of 8000 tons, 0 flotilla leaders of 2400 tons, 12 torpedo boats of 1450 tons, 6 submarines of 1100 tons and 6 of 680 tons; the battleship
NAVIES 07 THE WOULD
the previous year. The vessels under construc- tion or to be laid down in 1024 were the battle- ships Nelson and Rodney, commenced early in 1023, 2 or 3 submarines, 7 to 0 light cruisers of about 10,000 tons, and the mine-layer Adventure of 7000 tons. The aircraft carriers Eagle (22,- 700 tons) and Hermes (10,400) had been under
Beam, only partly built, was to be transformed construction for many years but were not re-
into an airplane carrier of about 23,000 tons. These vessels were to be completed in 1925. The second part of the naval programme, which
ported as completed by the middle of 1924.
The battleships Nelson and Rodney were the only vessels of their class under construction
up to the summer of 1024 had not been wholly in any country in 1024. Their displacement _._Ai — .•__,! u., 4t,~ v — ~i* r> — i: ---- * ----- A~
authorized by the French Parliament, was de- signed to be laid down during the years 1025-28 and completed in 1030. It consisted of 6 light cruisers of 10,000 tons, 15 flotilla leaders of 2400 tons, 24 destroyers of 1450 tons, 4 sub- marine cruisers of 3000 tons, 30 first-class -sub- marines of 1300 tons. The cruisers of 8000 tons were to have a speed of 34 knots and to carry 8 0.1 -inch guns in 4 turrets, 4 2.95-inch anti-aircraft puns, and 4 2 1.7 -inch torpedo tubes. Two 10.000-ton cruisers were to be laid down in 1025. The reported details were: speed, about 35 knots; battery, 8 8-inoh guns and 20 anti-aircraft guns. As the weight neces- sary to armor the upper deck as a defense against air-bombs would reduce the possible speed, numerous anti-aircraft guns were sub- stituted. It is expected that thev will enable the ship to meet attacking airplaines with a hail of chemical projectiles. The 8-inch guns wore to be mounted in gas-tight turrets to obviate danger from gas bombs and gas shells The flotilla leaders were to be of al>out 2400 tons. Pllip principal details were- length, 380.0 feet; beam, 303 feet: mean draft at a displacement of 2400 tons, 148 feet; speed, 35.5 knots; arm- ament, 6 5.1 -inch guns, 2 2.0-inch anti-aircraft guns, and 2 triple torpedo tubes for 21.7-inch torpedoes. The destroyers were to be of 1400 tons; speed, 33 knots; armament, 4 5.1-inch guns.
The French navy in 1024 consisted of 6 dread- naught battleships of 23,100 tons, 2 carrying 10 134-inch guns and 4 carrying 12 12-inch guns; 3 old Jmttleships of 18,800 tons carrying 4 12-inch and 12 04-inch guns; 10 old armored (•miners of 0400 to 14,100 tons but of little fighting value; 5 (ex -German) light cruisers (2(> to 285 knots); 10 destroyers of 800 to 050 tons. 27 destroyers of 350 to 085 tons; and about 00 submarines.
Germany. The Allied Supreme Council in- creased the number of battleships and of cruis- ers which Germany was permitted to retain from 0 to 8, the additional 2 to be always in reserve without ammunition or supplies The battle- ships might l»e replaced by new ones of not more than 10,000 tons and 'the cruisers by new ones of not more than 6000 tons, after 20 years from the date of completion. All will have reached that age before new ones can be built. The only vessel under construction in 1024 was a light cruiser of 5000 tons. The 8 battleships were of 13,000 tons and were to carry 4 11 -inch and 14 6.7-inch or 5.0-ineh guns. The 8 cruisers were small and all but 2 were over 20 years old. There were 10 destroyers and 16 torpedo boats.
Great Britain. The Naval Estimates for 1024-25 called for an expenditure of £55,800,000. The personnel of the navy, coast guard, avia- tion service, and marine police was fixed at 100,500, an increase of 1000 over the figures for
was the maximum allowed by the Five Power Naval Pact, 35,000 standard tons. This was computed on a slightly different basis from that of existing capital ships, but they would prob- ably be 3000 tons larger than any existing battleships except the British Hood and 6000 to 10,000 less than most of the capital ships scrapped under the terms of the Pact. As their design was an attempt to solve problems of naval construction which appeared to demand much greater si/e, it was being studied with interest by all naval authorities. The principal details available, July 1, 1024, were: length, 660 feet; beam, extreme, 100 feet; mean draft, 30 feet; speed, 23 knots; boilers, oilburning; engines, geared turbines; 3 turrets, each mount- ing 3 10-inch guns; all turrets on the central line, 2 on the forecastle, the after one firing over the other, the third just forward of the amokepipe; no stern fire from 16-inch guns, but the after turret could fire nearly astern with the outboard guns; 12 6-inch guns in 6 turrets, 3 on each beam; 12 4-inch anti-aircraft guns with vertical or nearly vertical fire; above- water triple torpedo tubes for 21 -inch torpedoes; quarter-deck clear of all structures in order to permit the landing and despatch of airplanes; armor belt, 13 inches thick; 3 armor decks, upper deck, deck at top of belt, and curved deck extending to lower edge of belt; side heavily bulged and conipartmented for antitorpedo pro- tection; hydraulic steering and turret machin- crv.
The new submarine XI, completed in 1023, had finished her trials in 1024 and was said to have failed to realize the hopes of her de- signers. She was much the largest submarine ever built, having a submerged displacement of 3500 tons and a surface displacement of 2750 tons with corresponding speeds of 18 and 33 knots. The Admiralty and seagoing officers of all ranks in 1024 were fighting hard to obtain entire control of the naval aviation service. To have the most suitable designs for naval aircraft, which differ widely from those in land service, to have naval aviators who possess in- timate knowledge of the details of naval af- fairs, and to have a continuous naval organiza- tion and control of the air forces of each fleet or other naval unit are so vital to efficiency that the slight financial gain in a consolidated air service should not be considered.
The vessels of the British navy in 1024 were: 5 battleships of 25,750 tons (8 15-inch guns, 23 knots), 5 battleships of 27,500 tons (8 15-inch guns, 25 knots), 4 battleships of 25,000 tons (10 13.5-inch guns, 21 knots), 4 battleships of 23,000 tons (10 13.5-inch guns, 22 knots), 1 battleship of 41,200 tons (8 15-inch guns, 31 knots) ; 1 battle cruiser of 28,500 tons (8 13.6- inch guns, 30 knots), 2 battle cruisers of 26,500 tons (6 15-inch guns, 32 knots) ; 35 light cruis- ers with a speed of 20 knots (14 of 3750 tons,
HAVIDB OF THE WOBXJ)
9x0
3 of 4120 tons, 10 of 4100 tons, 8 of 4750 tons), 6 light cruisers of 25.5 knots (3 of 5250 tons,
3 of 5400 tons), 3 light cruisers of 0750 tons and 30 knots, and 3 of 7550 tons and 32 knots; 17 flotilla leaders of 1610 to 1800 tons; 170 destroyers of 1040 to 1350 tons and 34 to 30 knots; 27 steam sloops of 1250 tons and 17 knots; 56 twin-screw mine-sweepers of 800 tons and 16 knots; 16 patrol boats of 573 tons and 22 knots; and 92 submarines of 500 to 3500 tons (submerged), most of them of 800 to 1100 tons.
Greece. The defeat of Greece by the Turks and the various political upheavals and financial disturbances interfered with the development of the navy. The fleet in 1924 consisted of 2 pre- dreadnaught battleships (formerly the Missis- sippi and the Idaho) of 13,000 tons, 1 armored cruiser of 9956 tons and 24 knots; 1 light cruis- er of 2600 tons and 23 knots; 11 destroyers of 350 to 980 tons; and 2 submarines of 460 tons. The dreadnaught battleship tialamis was ordered in Germany in 1013. At the close of the War she was still far from finished but probably would be completed in a French ship- yard. As designed, the displacement was 19,- 500 tons; length, 570 feet; beam, 82 feet; draft, 26 feet; speed, 25 knots; battery, 8 14-inch guns, 12 6-inch guns, and some of 3-inch cal- ibre. In addition to completing the Nalamis, Greece ordered 4 large destroyers in England.
Italy. The naval budget for 1023-24 was 770,465,015 lire (1 lira = about $.043). No new construction of any importance was in hand. A building programme was announced in 1923, the work to begin as follows: 1024-25: 2 light cruisers, 4 destroyers, 4 submarines; 1925-26:
4 destroyers, 4 submarines; 1926-27: 4 destroy- ers, 4 submarines; 1927-28: 1 light cruiser, 4 destroyers, 4 submarines. The Italian navy in 1924 consisted of 5 battleships of about 22,- 500 tons (13 12-inch guns, 23 knots), 1 battle- ship of 19,500 tons (12 12-inch guns, 24 knots),
4 predreadnaught battleships of 12,600 tons; 3 armored cruisers of 9056 tons and 22.5 knots; 8 light cruisers of 3200 to 4800 tons and 27 to 28 knots, 1 light cruiser of 3700 tons and 22 knots; 8 flotilla leaders or scouts of about 35 knots speed, 2 of them of 1500 tons, 2 of 1800 tons, 3 of 2158 tons, and 1 of 2500 tons; 14 destroyers of 320 to 380 tons, 42 destroyers of 650 to* 850 tons, 12 destroyers of 922 to J012 tons, 1 destroyer of 1354 tons; about 90 tor- pedo boats of 110 to 210 tons; 33 submarines of 300 to 460 tons, and 10 of 920 to 1000 tons. One of the battleships of 22,500 tons, the Leonardo da Vinci, was blown up and sunk dur- ing the War; it was later raised, but whether it would be repaired or not was uncertain.
Japan. The naval budget for 1924 was 238,- 500,000 yen (1 yen = about $.41). Notwith- standing the damages inflicted by the earth- quake, the vessels of the 1923-24 programme were to be laid down as soon as the various shipyards were free to undertake the work. This programme included: 4 light cruisers of 10,000 tons, 2 of 7100 tons; 18 destroyers of about 1500 tons; 16 submarines with submerged tonnages of 1500 to 2500 tons. All vessels of the programme were to be completed by 1928. On July 1, 1923, the following vessels were under construction: 1 light cruiser of 3100 tons,
5 of 5600 tons, 2 of 7100 tons; 7 destroyers of 1400 tons and 4 of 900 tons; 2 airplane car- riers (ex -battle cruiser Akagi and ex-battleship
NAVIES OF THE WO&LB
Kag*); 4 gunboats of 338 tons; 5 auxiliary service vessels. The number of light cruisers completed, building, or authorized since 1918 was 25; all had speeds of 33 knots or more. The navv yard at Yokosuka was damaged by the earthquake to the extent of 35,000,000 yen, and other yards, public and private, were se- riously injured. One of the greatest losses was that of the great oil storage tanks which held about 3,000,000 barrels. All the earthquake damages were being rapidly repaired, and the Yokosuka yard was to be ready to undertake shipbuilding work soon after June, 1924.
The Japanese fleet, including light cruisers and smaller vessels under construction, in 1924 consisted of 2 battleships of 33,800 tons (8 16-inch guns, 23.5 knots); 2 battleships of 31,- 260 tons (12 14-inch guns, 23 knots), 2 battle- ships of 30,600 tons (12 14-inch guns, 23 knots) ; 4 battle cruisers of 27,500 tons (8 14- inch guns, 27.5 knots) ; 3 armored cruisers of 9800 tons; 4 light cruisers of 10,000 tons (35 knots), 4 of 7100 tons (35 knots), 14 of 5000 tons (35 knots), 3 of 4950 tons (26 knots), 1 of 4100 tons (23 knots), 2 of 3500 tons (31 knots), 1 of 3100 tons (34 knots); 18 destroy- ers of 1500 tons, 7 of 1400, '22 of 1350, 6 of 1200, 25 of 900, 1 of 955, 18 of 835, 10 of 605, and 2 of 600. The details of Japanese sub- marines are rarely published There were said in 1924 to be about 80 boats including those already mentioned as belonging to the new pro- gramme of construction.
Netherlands. Several building programmes, including one in 1923, were submitted to the Netherlands Parliament, but all were rejected The vessels of the navy in 1024 consisted of 5 armored coast-defense ships of 5000 to 0500 tons (1903-1910) ; 2 new light cruisers of 7050 tons and 30 knots, 3 or 4 old cruisers of 4000 tons; 3 armored gunboats of 540 tons, many other gunboats at home and in the Dutch East Indies; 4 new mine-layers (1022) of 750 tons, 12 other mine-layers; 4 small mine-sweepers, 1 new submarine de"pftt ship of 2500 tons; 8 destroyers of 480 tons; 8 torpedo boats of 322 tons, 7 torpedo boats of 130 to 190 tons; 11 submarines of about 700 tons, 3 of 380 tons, 5 of 150 to 234 tons, and 1 submarine mine- layer.
Norway. The naval budget for 1922-23 was 21,340,160 crowns (par value $0.268). Two submarines of 420 tons in 1024 were building in Norway. The vessels of the navy were 4 armored coast-defense ships of 3920 to 4233 tons; 1 small cruiser of 1350 tons; 9 gunboats of 100 to 620 tons; 3 destroyers of 540 tons; about 30 torpedo boats of 65 to 220 tons; 4 sub- marines of 255 tons, 2 submarines of 420 tons; and 3 new mining vessels of 335 to 755 tons.
Bussia. The Russian navy by 1 924 apparently was becoming less and less efficient, partly from lack of regular organization, partly from lack of intelligent control and care of vessels and equipment, and partly from lack of suffi- cient funds to keep the vessels and equipment in repair. One dreadnaught battleship was usually kept in commission and one in reserve; the other battleships and cruisers were unfit for service. A number of destroyers and sub- marines were kept in commission, but whether effective or not was unknown. Other vessels in Hervice were mine-sweepers, mine-layers and ice breakers. Two divisions of destroyers were in commission in the Black Sea, but no large ves-
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NAVIES OF THE WORLD
911
sels. Much attention was being paid to avia- tion, and efforts were being made to extend the service.
Spain. The naval budget for 1923-24 was 125,890,543 pesetas (par value = $0.1 93). It provided for an enlisted force of 13,000 in the seaman branch and 2550 marines. The vessels building in 1924 were: 2 light cruisers of 4725 tons and 29 knots, and 2 of 7975 tons and 33 knots; 3 submarines of 610 tans; 3 flotilla leaders of 1650 tons and 36 knots; 3 destroyers of 1145 tons and 34 knots; 3 gunboats of 1335 tons and 18 knots. In addition to the foregoing, the vessels of the navy in 1024 were: 2 dread- naught battleships of 15,500 tons (8 12-inch guns, 19.5 knots), 1 old (1888) battleship of 0733 tons; 3 old (1898) armored cruisers of 7400 to 9900 tons; 1 old light cruiser of 5800 tons and 19.5 knots, 1 light cruiser of 5500 tons and 25 knots, 1 old light cruiser of 2100 tons and 19 knots; 5 gunl>oats of about 800 tons; 1 mine-layer of 1773 tons; 1 submarine salvage vessel of 2100 tons; 7 destroyers of 300 to 460 tons; 22 torpedo boats; and 10 sub- marines, 3 of them of 383 tons, 0 of 740 tons, and 1 of 685 tons.
Sweden. The navy of Sweden in 1024 con- sisted of 3 new armored roast-defense vessels of 7605 tons and 22 knots, (j older ones (1901- 07) of 3620 to 4700 tons and 10 to 18 knots, 7 others (1891-09) of 3400 to ,S715 tons; 1 ar- mored cruiser of 5000 tons and 22 5 knots; 1 mine cruiser of 1800 tons and 20 knots; 4 tor- pedo gunboats of 830 tons and 20 knots; 4 other small gunboats; 10 destroyers of 480 to 500 tons and 30 knots: 17 torpedo boats of 106 to 120 tons and 25 knots, 10 torpedo boats of 60 tons; 11 submarines of 370 tons, and 5 smaller submarines.
Turkey. The Treaty of Sevres deprived Turkey of her naval force and nearly all her seacoast. The Treaty of Lausanne returned the most valuable parts of her seacoast as well as the remains of her fleet, consisting of the battle cruiser tivltan Rclim (formerly the Goebrn, 22,040 tons, 10 11 -inch guns, 28 knots) ; the old battleship Torgut Rein (formerly the Weisttenlurg, 9900 tons, 6 11-inch guns, 17 knots) ; the old protected cruisers Hamidich (3800 tons) and Medjitlieh (3400 tons); 9 small torpedo boats of 100 to 200 tons; 9 gun- boats of 200 to 500 tons; an armed yacht, and several motor boats. The vessels in 1024 were all in urgent need of repairs, which were to be made at the naval dockyard at Constantino- ple. This yard was being repaired, refitted, and improved by British shipbuilding companies.
United States. The only vessels under con- struction for the navy in *1924 were: 2 large aircraft carriers (Leamington and Saratoga, commenced as battle cruisers) ; 2 light cruisers of 7500 tons; 2 destroyer tenders; and 3 fleet submarines. The programme of new construc- tion presented to Congress by the Secretary of the Navy consisted of 8 light cruisers of 10,000 tons, 6 light-draft gunboats for use on Chinese rivers, and 3 large submarines. The vessels of the navy in 1924 were: 3 battleships of 32,600 tons (8 16-inch guns, 21 knots), 2 battleships of 32,300 tons (12 14-inch guns, 21 knots), 3 battleships of 32,000 tons (12 14-inch guns, 21 knots), 2 battleships of 31,400 tons (12 14-inch guns, 21 knots), 2 battleships of 27,500 tons (10 14-inch guns, 20.5 knots), 2 battleships of 27,000 tons (10 14-inch guns, 21.5 knots), 2
NAVIES OF THE WORLD
battleships of 26,000 tons (12 12-inch guns, 21 knots), 2 battleships of 21,825 tons (12 12-inch guns, 21.6 knots) ; 3 armored cruisers of 14,500 tons, 6 of 13,680 tons, 2 of 9700 tons, 1 of 8200 tons; 10 light cruisers of 7500 tons and 34 knots, 3 of 3750 tons and 25 knots; 7 pro- tected cruisers of 3200 to 3500 tons; 8 gun- boats of 1000 to 1575 tons; 6 large mine-layers; 17 submarine and destroyer tenders; 2 air- craft carriers; 1 airship tender; 6 repair ships, 3 supply ships, 4 hospital ships, 25 fuel ships; also small gunboats, tugs, and miscel- laneous vessels; 237 destroyer of about 1200 tons and 35 knots, 44 destroyers of 1000 to 1100 tons and 30 knots, 21 destroyers of 720 tons and 30 knots; and about 100 submarines.
The personnel of the navy in 1924 consisted of 7810 officers and 85,790 enlisted men. Dur- ing the War there were 32,474 officers and 550,- 736 enlisted men. On June 30, 1923, there were 4222 officers in the Naval Reserve Force and about 11,000 men.
As regards materiel, the greatest needs of the navy in 1924 were: (a) repair of battleships; (b) more light cruisers; (c) some flotilla lead- ers; (d) large submarines for fleet service; (e) more aircraft The repair of battleships includes an increased elevation of the turret guns in all except the very latest vessels, the application of thin armor to the upper deck as n protection against aircraft bombs, the ap- plication of bulges and compartmentation below water as a protection against torpedoes, and a general repair and refitting of hull and machin- ery, particulaily the latter Tn a spirit of mis- taken economy. Congress and the demands of the budget cut the maintenance appropriations for the fleet until the sums allotted became wholly inadequate for the preservation of the vessels and machinery and still less adequate to secure efficiency. The deck armor, antitorpcdo bulges, and the elevation of the guns were deemed necessary to place the battleships on the same plane of efficiency aa the vessels of Great Britain and Japan. These repairs and changes could be effected without contravening the terms of the Five Power Naval Pact for the limitation of naval armaments. Compared with the British and Japanese navies, that of the United States in 1924 was particularly de- ficient in light cruisers. Of vessels of this type less than 10 years old, Great Britain had 47 of 243,240 tons and was building at least 7 more of about 10,000 tons each; Japan had 25 of 157,730 tons; and the United States had 10 of 75,000 tons. To preserve her paiity with Great Britain, the United States needed 25 or more cruisers of 250,000 tons; and to hold her 5-3 ratio with Japan she needed 19 or more cruisers of 188,000 tons. Not less than 10 flotilla leaders and 10 large submarines were re- quired. As to aircraft, the navy needed at least three times its force of 1924.
Fortunately for its efficiency, for its develop- ment along desired lines, and for its usefulness to the fleet and other naval purposes, the en- tire control of the naval air service was vested in the Navy Department. The Bureau of Aeronautics was established on Sept. 1, 1921. Before that date, naval aviation was divided between several different bureaus in a manner to prevent coordination of its various parts. The Bureau was carefully and thoroughly or- ganized under its flrst chief, Rear-Admiral W. A. Moffett, and under his efficient guidance
NAVIGATION
91 a
NAVIGATION
the naval air service greatly improved and con- tinued to gain as rapidly as the insufficient ap- propriations permitted. As a demonstration of the efficiency of the service, United States navy fliers established, in 1023, 23 out of the 42 recognized world's records for aircraft perform- ance. In October, 1923, the Bureau completed the ZRt, the first rigid airship of the Zeppelin type to be built in America. Christened the fihenandoah, it was subjected to many tests and trials, all but one of which it passed satisfac- torily; while riding at its mooring mast a 72- mile gale drove with such force that its whole bow was torn off. The ship nevertheless weath- ered the storm and after 0 houis returned and was nosed into her hangar. The Shenandoah is 680 feet long, has a diameter of 78.7 feet, a gas capacity of 2,150,000 cubic feet, and is filled with helium. It is driven by G 300-horse power Packard engines with a maximum speed of 75 miles per hour and a cruising speed of 65 miles The crew consists of 9 officers and 22 men. For sectional diagram and illustration, see AERONAUTICS Another airship of the Zep- pelin type was built in Germany and was ready for delivery in 1924 It was styled the ZR3. It is 656 feet long, 90 feet 9 inches in diameter, and has a gas capacity of 2,475,000 cubic feet. In addition to rigid airships, the air service was equipped with non rigid dirigibles, kite balloons, free balloons, seaplanes, airplanes of land types, torpedo-planes, etc. One of the moat interesting of the seaplanes was the Jr/tf/, designed for use by submarines. It had an all-metal body and was of such small dimensions that with wings folded it could l>c stowed in a little compart- ment immediately below the deck of the sub- marine. This compartment was not water-tight, but water would not injure the plane It could be hoisted out and made ready in a few minutes. It takes off from the water and on return de- scends to the surface alongside the submarine. See VESSEL, NAVAL; BOMBING OF VESSELS; WAR IN EUROPE, Xaval Operations
NAVIGATION. The art of navigation was greatly improved in the decade 1914-24 by the invention of new devices and the further de- velopment of old ones. The net result was in- creased safety for shipping, especially in the vicinity of land, and greater ease and economy in handling it everywhere. The most note- worthy of the devices were the radio compass, ponic sounding, the gyro-pilot, cable steering, the earth induction compass, and the auxiliary rudder.
Radio Compass. This is a device for the reception of the electromagnetic waves used in radio telegraphy and for determining the di- rection of their source. Its operation is based on the fact that radio waves have most effect on an antenna or loop when its plane is in the direction of the propagation of the waves If the waves are not deflected by intervening land or other objects, the plane will point toward the source. Great care is taken to prevent such deflection, but some always exists. This is eliminated from the final result in well-placed and carefully screened stations by determining a curve of error which gives the proper correc- tion to apply to each observed bearing. The compass itself consists of a vertical coil pivoted on a vertical axis rising from the centre of a dumb compass which is set with its zero pointing north. The operator rotates the vertical coil until in the position which gives
the minimum of sound in the head 'phone. The pointer over the dumb compass then gives the direction of the transmitting station, subject to correction for error. Radio compasses are installed on board ship as well as ashore, but the shore stations give the best results, as the deflecting objects on large vessels are numerous and troublesome. A ship may thus determine the direction of a shore station, or a shore sta- tion may determine the direction of a ship and give her the information by radio. Simul- taneous reports from two shore stations may be plotted on a chart; gnomonic projection must be used if over 50 miles away; and the exact location of the ship may be determined, a most important matter in a heavy fog. A large num- ber of shore stations, established on the east and west coasts of the United States and on the Great Lakes, are of great use in foggy weather or when a ship is beyond visual range of definable shore objects but within 150 mile? of a compass station.
Sonic Sounding1. Deep-sea sounding was un- til late in the decade effected by means of a long wire and a detachable sinker. The son it- sounding apparatus or automatic depth record- er was developed and perfected by Dr. Harvex C Hayes, sound aide and physicist of the Naval Experiment Station at Annapolis, Md It consists of an oscillator mounted in a tank in the stern of the ship and a hydrophone in- Rt ailed in the bow. Wires from both lead to the bridge or charthouae. Oscillator sound sig- nals are made by the operator. The sound wave, traveling about 4840 feet per second, goen to the ocean bed, is reflected back, and is caught by the hydrophone receiver which mea- sures the elapsed time. Ihis time interval, re- ferred to a scale, gives the depth in fathoms The United States Navy was the first to put the device to practical use. The U.S.S. Rtewai t ran a line of soundings from Newport, R. 1., to Manila, P. I., and other naval vessels did simi- lar work in the Atlantic and Pacific OceariH Apparatus of this sort will probably be applied in the near future to all large vessels as its value is so great they cannot afford to be with- out it.
Earth Induction Compass. This is an in- strument devised by Dr. L. J. Briggs and Dr. Paul K. Ileyl of the United States Bureau of Standards. It is a development of their air- plane compass but is larger and driven by an electric motor instead of wind cups. Two di- rect currents arc generated by revolving two paii a of brushes at a velocity of 1400 revolu- tions per minute in the magnetic field of the earth. The instrument is so adjusted that when it is set for a compass bearing, the currents flowing from both pairs of brushes are equal and produce no effect on a galvanometer. If the instrument turns even slightly, one current becomes stronger, and the dial needle is de- flected. On board ship the generator is placed aloft or as far as possible from the magnetic field of the ship, but the control is in any con- venient location This compass, including its fittings, is comparatively inexpensive.
Badio Pilot Cable. A method of keeping a ship in the channel during a heavy fog was test- ed in the Ambrose Channel leading into the New York harbor. It consists of an electric cable through which flows an alternating current. Ships intending to use the cable are provided with a pair of coils, each connected to a galvanometer.
NEAB BAST BELIEF
By noting when the currents in the coils are equal, the navigator can determine when he is astride the cable and can keep over it. For regular service two cables are laid, one for incoming and one for outgoing vessels, carrying currents of different frequency.
Gyro-Pilot. This apparatus, designed and developed uy Elmer A. Sperry, the inventor of the Sperry gyro-compass, is a device for automatically steering a ship on any desired course. The course is set on the gyro-compass, and the gyro-pilot not only takes the place of the helmsman in steering but notes each yaw of the vessel as it begins arid anticipates the movement by helm change more quickly than a helmsman can. Moreover, it takes cog- nizance of the speed of the yaw, when increas- ing and when dying away, and corrects the rudder angle accordingly. The sum total of its efficiency is considerable. It reduces the angle of yaw and the necessary helm angle, on both counts effecting an increase of speed with the same power, and in reducing the yaw cuts down the distance which the ship travels in steering a course between two fixed points
Flettner Budder. This is a German inven- tion designed to do away with expensive steer- ing gears and to replace them by a simple form of rudder worked by the streamline pressure exerted on the rudder by the water through which the vessel is moving. This is accom- plished by a small auxiliary rudder or deflector which IH set in a lonjr jog in the after edge of the main rudder arid operated independently of it. The combined effect of the deflector and the current of water imparts to the main rudder a lar^e turning movement enabling it to act with pioinpt and efficient steering effect.
NEAB EAST BELIEF. An organization incorporated by Congress in 1919 for the pur- pose of affording lelief to sufferers in Armenia, Syria, the Russian Caucasus, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Palestine, Macedonia, and other coun- tries. Conditions in these countries in 1919 were characterized by Herbert Hoover as "the most desperate in the world." This was largely due to the fact that the Red Cross did not maintain any relief system in them. The or- ganization succeeded the Armenian and Syrian Helief Commission. Over 7000 tons of flour were distributed per month. It was reported that there were 1,200,000 destitute adults and 250,000 homeless children in the areas affected. Col. \Villiam N. Haskell assumed charge of all operations and expenditures in 1919. In 1920 the work of the organization extended from Egypt to the Caucasus and from Constantinople to * Mesopotamia and Persia. From northern Turkey, over 500,000 Armenians had escaped to the Russian Caucasus; they were in a des- titute condition, In Egypt and elsewhere, hun- dreds of refugees had settled, and in Persia, as a result of famine in 1917-18, thousands were suffering for the necessities of life. By the end of 1920 more than $42,000,000 had been spent by the organization. The work repre- sented the literal saving from death of hun- dreds of thousands. The largest and most im- portant service was the work among the chil- dren. In 1920 the organization cared for more than 100,000 children, the majority of them in
913 HEBBA8KA
1,000,000 women and children had been saved from starvation through the efforts of the Re- lief. Three hundred American workers were employed, besides hundreds of native helpers. At the end of 1922 38 hospitals, 50 clinioa, and 124 orphanages were maintained. The total ex- penditure to July, 1924, was about $78,000,000. Invaluable service was rendered at the destruc- tion of Smyrna, where assistance was given to the thousands of refugees escaping to Greece and elsewhere. In 1923 the Near East Relief concentrated its activities on a child-welfare programme. During the year, on account of the forced evacuation of minority populations at Anatolia, emergency work for adult refugees was carried on at Mediterranean and Black Sea ports. This included feeding and medical service and resulted in the saving of at least 100,000 lives, chiefly of women and children. Over 22,000 orphans were safely transferred from the interior of Anatolia to new institu- tional homes in Syria, Palestine, and Greece.
In 1924, the organization was operating 39 orphanage centres and 62 hospitals and clinics in six countries. Its agricultural demonstra- tion projects in Syria, Greece, and Armenia em- ployed 23,000 acres. Industrial training schools in Syria, Greece, and Palestine were teaching 33 trades to 30,000 children.
NEBRASKA. Nebraska is the fifteenth State in size (77,520 square miles) and the thirty-first in population; capital, Lincoln. The population increased from 1,192,214 in 1910 to 1,296,372 in 1920, a gain of 8.7 per cent The white population rose from 1,180,293 to 1,- 279,219; negro, from 7689 to 13.242. The State lias a very large proportion of native white in- habitants,' and these increased from 1,004,428 in 1910 to 1,129,307 in 1920. The foreign-born whites, on the other hand, decreased from 175,- 863 to 149,652. Both urban and rural popula- tions showed an increase, the former from 310,- 852 to 405,306, and the lattei from 881,362 to 891,066. Ihe growth of the principal cities was as follows. Omaha (q.v.). 1910, 124,096; 1920, 191,601; Lincoln, 43,973 to 54,948; Grand Island, 10,326 to 13,947.
Agriculture. As Nebraska is one of the great agiicultural States, conditions in the decade 1910-20 reflected the fluctuations in prices and production which resulted from War and post-war conditions. (See AGKICULTURE. ) While the population of the State in the decade increased 8.7 per cent, the number of farms decreased 4.1 per cent (from 129,678 in 1910 to 124,417 in 1920). The acreage in farms in 1910 was 38,622,021, compared with 42,225,475 in 1920, an increase of 9.3 per cent; the im- proved land in farms likewise showed an in- crease from 24,382,577 acres to 23,109,624, or 5.2 per cent. The percentage of land used for agricultural purposes increased from 78.6 in 1910 to 85.9 in 1920, but the percentage of im- proved farm land fell from 63.1 to 54.7 per cent. The total value of farm property showed an apparent increase from $2,079,818,647 to $4,201,655,992, or 102 per cent; the average value per farm, from $16,038 to $33,771, or 110.6 per cent In interpreting these values and indeed all comparative values in the dec- ade 1914-24, the inflation of the currency in
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orphanages and the others in soup kitchens and the latter part of that period is to be taken into
clinics. Conditions were intensified by the fight- consideration. The index number of prices Mid
5m, in the Caucasus and western Turkey in 1921. to producers of farm products in the United
Kto theS of 192 Ti? was esSed that States was 104 in 1910 and 216 in 1920. Of
KBBBASKA
914
NEBRASKA
the total of 124,417 farms in 1920, 69,672 were operated by owners, 1315 by managers, and 53,- 430 by tenants. The comparative figures for 1010 were 79,250, 987, and 49,441. White farmers numbered 124,033 in 1920 and 129,216 in 1910, the native white farmers increasing from 93,500 to 99,441, while foreign-born far- mers decreased from 35,707 to 24,592. Of the 384 colored farmers in 1920, 260 were Indians. Farms free from mortgage in 1920 numbered 27,065, compared with 47,435 in 1910; those under mortgage, 35,191, compared with 30,839. The number of dairy cows in 1920 was 516,716, compared with 613,952 in 1910, a decrease of 15.8 per cent; "beef cows," 1,121,504, com- pared with 705,191, or an increase of 59 per cent; hogs, 3,435,690, compared with 3.435,724; sheep, 673,217, compared with 240,116 The es- timated production of the chief farm crops in 1923 was as follows- corn, 257,418,000 bushels; spring wheat, 3,560,000; winter wheat, 28.220,- 000; oats, 86,977,000; rye, 1,584,000; barley, 9,586,000; potatoes, 9,912,000; hay, 3,352,000 tons; and sugar beets, 541,000 short tons Com- parative figures for 1913 are: corn, 114,150,000 Imshels; wheat. 62,325,000; oats, 59,625,000; rye, 1,740,000; barley, 1,760,000; potatoes, 5,- (»(64,000; and hay, 1,075,000 tons. The apple crop in 1919 was 907,224 bushels valued at $1,905,175, as compared with 3,321,073 bushels valued at $1,612,765 in 1909.
Manufactures. Nebraska is not one of the leading manufacturing States It has, how- ever, five cities with more than 10,000 inhabi- tants, which in 1920 contained 21.8 per cent of the State's total population and in 1919 report- ed 81.7 per cent of the State's manufactured products. There were in the State, in 1909, 2.100 manufacturing establishments ; in 1914, 2492; and in 1919, 2884. Persons engaged in manufacture numbered 31,966, 33,695, and 49,- 076; and the capital invested amounted to $09,901,080, $121,007,944, and $245,256,684, in those years. The value of the products in 1909 was $199,018,579; in 1914 $221,615,848; and in 1919, $590,042.498. The large increase in value of the products between 1914 and 1919 was due largely to the change in industrial con- ditions brought about by the War and cannot properly be used to indicate the growth in man- ufactures; but the increase in number of wage earners and in number of establishments in- dicates clearly a decided growth in the manufac- turing activities of the State. The principal manufacturing city is Omaha, which had, in 1009, 432 manufacturing establishments, with a product valued at $60,855,000; 1914, 417, with $06,438,000; and in 1919, 561 with $452,237,000. Lincoln is also important industrially, having, in 1909, 167 manufacturing establishments, with a product valued at $7,010,000; in 1914, 105 with $10,025,000; and in 1919, 210 with $23,368,000.
Education. The passage of several legisla- tive acts during the decade 1914-24 did much to improve educational conditions in Nebraska. This is especially true of the latter part of the period. The Legislature of 1919 passed a certification law standardizing the issue of teachers' certifications by establishing specific legal requirements; a law redistricting the State for the purpose of forming consolidated school districts; and a third making citizenship a necessary requirement for teachers in all pub- lic, private, denominational, and parochial
schools. The Legislature of 1921 made it man- datory for every school district of the State to provide a minimum term of 9 months when it can be supported on a levy of $.008 on $1 of the actual assessed valuation of the school district. The four State normal schools were designated as teachers' colleges by the 1921 Legislature and were authorized to confer the bachelor's degree on students completing the four years' college course. Midland College changed its location from Atchison, Kan., to Fremont, Neb., and Bellevue College, formerly at Bellevue, Neb., was discontinued. The aver- age daily attendance in the schools in 1923 was 253,055, compared with 214,152 in 1914. The total expenditure for public schools for 1923 was $29,936,549. Illiteracy in the State decreased from 2.5 per cent in 1910 to 1.8 per cent in 1920: among the native white population, from 0.8 to 0.5; among the foreign-born white, from 7.1 to 6.6; and among the negro, from 8.5 to 5.7.
Finance. For finance, see STATE FINANCES.
Political and Other Events. During the decade 1914-24, Nebraska was one of the doubt- ful States, and control was balanced closely be- tween the Democratic and Republican parties. In 1914 John H. Morehead, the Democratic can- didate, was elected governor, and the Democrats elected their candidates for Congress in three districts and the Republicans theirs in the others. A woman suffrage amendment was de- feated in this election, and so were several othei proposed amendments. In 101(5 the State was Democratic, both nationally and locally. Keith Neville, Democratic candidate, was elected gov- ernor, and (Gilbert M. Hitchcock was reflected to the Senate. In the voting for President in this year, President Wilson received 158,827 votes; Charles E. Hughes, 117,771. At this elec- tion a prohibition amendment was cariied At State elections in 1918, the Republican nom- inees were elected to the Legislature by large majorities. Samuel R McKelvie was elected governor. An amendment to the constitution was adopted, depriving so-called "first paper declarants," six months resident in the State, of the right to vote. The voters also decided in favor of holding a convention to draft and submit a new State constitution. In October, 1919, there was serious rioting in Douglas County during which the county court house was damaged by fire, with a loss of nearlv $1.- 200,000. The trouble arose from the attempts of the mob to force the sheriff to turn over to them a negro prisoner. The negro was scixed by the mob and hanged. In 1920 Governor McKelvie was reflected. In the voting for presi- dent in this year, Warren G. Harding received 247,498 votes; James M. Cox, 119,608. Dur- ing 1920 a constitutional convention adopted 41 amendments to the constitution which were voted on in a special election on September 22. The most important of these amendments were as follows: The English language was re- quired as a teaching medium in all common schools. The governor was given the power to appoint heads of the executive department, with the consent of the majority of both houses. A budget system was created. The concurrence of five out of seven judges of the Supreme Court was made necessary for declaring a law uncon- stitutional. No appropriations are made to educational institutions not owned and con- trolled by the State. In the elections of 1922,
NEBRASKA
the Democrats were successful. Charles Bryan, brother of William J. Bryan, was elected governor. Robert B. Howell, Republican candi- date, was elected United States Senator, defeat- ing Gilbert M. Hitchcock, Democrat. The Re- publicans elected a majority in both houses of the Legislature. Governor Bryan was inaugu- rated in January, 1923. In the nominating primaries in 1924, Senator Norri«, Republican, was ronominated. Charles W. Bryan was re- nominated by the Democrats for governor and Adam McMullen by the Republicans.
Legislation. The mo«4t important acts of the Legislature in the decade 1914-24 are noted be- low. The Legislature of 1917 arranged for the submission of an amendment providing for a revision of the State constitution. The right of women to vote was affirmed for all elections not already specified in the State constitution. Provision was made for the election of the judiciary and certain school officers by non- partisan ballots. A special session of the Legis- lature was held in 1918 to deal with issues arising from the War. The so-called Mockett Law, under which the teaching of German was made compulsory in the schools, was repealed. The Legislature in 19J9 passed a measure con- solidating several boards and commissions un- der the governor, with the purpose of unifying the administration and doing away with dupli- cations and overlapping jurisdiction. The bank- ing laws were amended and so were the "blue sky" law and the workmen's compensation law A bill was passed for the erection of a new State capitol. The Legislature ratified the Federal prohibition amendment, Jan. 16, 1919, and the Federal woman suffrage amendment, Aug 2, 1919. The Legislature of 1921 passed measures designed to prohibit aliens' acquiring title to land in the State; provided for the preparation and presentation of a State budget and for the establishment of cooperative as- sociations; and declared English the official language of the State, prohibiting discrimina- tion against its use by religious and social bodies. The school age 'was raised from 14 to 10 years under certain conditions and the age of minority for women to 21 years. A special session of the Legislature was held in April,
1922, to reduce the appropriations made by the Legislature of 1921, in order to avoid the ex- cessive collection of taxes. The total amount of reductions made was about $2,500,000. In 1923 the Legislature passed a measure forbid- ding the marriage of persons afflicted with cer- tain diseases.
NEBBASKA, UNIVERSITY OF. A coeduca- tional State institution at Lincoln, Neb , founded in 1869. With the exception of the war years the student enrollment increased steadily from 4133 in 1914 to 5051 in the year 1923-24, with 2569 in the summer session of
1923, not including students of noncollegiate rank and those enrolled in extension courses. The faculty increased correspondingly during the period from 283 to 368 members, and the library from 111,000 to 175,000 volumes. The income of the university rose from $1,000,000 to approximately $3,000,000. Many new build- ings were put up. An animal pathology labora- tory was built in 1918 and a special State ap- propriation made available for research in ani- mal diseases. During 1919 and 1920 the fol- lowing buildings were erected or acquired: on the city campus, Social Sciences Hall, Tcach-
9x5 NE0BO MIGRATION
W. era' College building, Ellen Smith Hall, the chancellor's residence, seven students' houses; on the farm campus, an agricultural engineer- ing building and an animal pathology and hy- giene building and a barn; at the Medical College at Omaha, a new laboratory building, nurses' home, and a steam plant. A photo- graphic studio was also added in 1921 and in 1923 a beef cattle barn and a new stadium for athletics and public exercises. Chancellor, Sam- uel Avery.
NEBULJE. See ASTRONOMY.
NEGRI SEMBILAN. See MALAY STATES, FEDERATED.
NEGRO IN AMERICA. See NEGRO MI- GRATION: UNITED STATES, Population; LYNCII- ixas; and RACE PROBLEMS IN THE UNITED
STATFfl
NEGRO MIGRATION. Following 1910, the northward movement of the southern negro, which had been fairly constant from tlie close of the Civil War, showed a remarkable increase. Previous to that year negroes in the North had been entirely excluded from most occupations; about three-fourths of the colored workers were employed in domestic personal service; they commanded only poor wages and were largely shut off from the benefits of labor organization. With war-time conditions came a marked broad- ening of their industrial opportunities. On ac- rount of the lal>or shortage produced by the check to European immigration and the expan- sion of industry to meet war-time demands, northern employers found themselves compelled to take on negro labor This was, lx»yond question, the immediate cause of the conspicu- ous growth in the migration northward. At the same time unrest among negroes in the .South and other influences contributed to this movement. In 1918 the total northward mi- gration for the preceding few years was placed between 500,000 and 600,000.' This wholesale movement was checked for a time after the War oame to an end, although many negroes insisted on coming North even when they were warned that only unemployment awaited them Tt began again in 1921 and increased through 1922 and 1923. In addition to his war-time experience, the negro had been used to a limited extent as strike-breaker in the steel, building trades, railroad shop, and packing house strikes, where he had an opportunity to prove and to learn his value in industry. Whereas in the South 57.7 per cent of the total number of mule negro workers were employed in agriculture, only 5.7 were so engaged in the North in 1920. Moreover, instead of working in hotels, restau- rants, office buildings, and domestic kitchens, most of them had become industrial laborers in mills, factories, and stockyards. Tn Chicago the negro was represented by large or small numbers in practically all the principal occupa- tions. In some cases they had risen to fore- manship over men of their own race. Negro women, to a less extent, were being employed in a widening variety of industrial processes. Although in general negroes were not admitted to unions and were employed at lower rates than white workers, in some cases they were asking equal pay for equal work and were join- ing trade unions where these were open to them. More than all this, perhaps, the negro was finding in the North a freer social and political life with increased educational ad- vantages.
NBGBO MIGRATION
916
This increased northward migration continu- ing, the farm labor situation in the South be- came alarming by the spring of 1023. A tempo- rary reduction in the crop acreage was found necessary. The United States Department of Agriculture, on investigation, found that Geor- gia had lost, within a year, 32,000 negro farm workers, or 13 per cent of the total number of negro farm workers in that State; Alabama had lost 10,000 or 3% per cent; South Caro- lina, 22,700, or 3 per cent; Arkansas, 15,000, or 3% per cent; Florida, 2, and Louisiana, 1 per cent; besides the negro workers who had been lost to mining, lumbering, manufacturing, and domestic service. According to a study of the census figures, made by the United States Bureau of the Census, the net direct loss to the South through negro migration up to the year 1920 had been 733,571, or approximately 82 per cent of its total negro population. The first measure taken in the South to check the movement was rigorous legislation to control emigrant labor agencies; payment of a license fee was required, in some cases as high as $2500, with jail sentences for evasion. The attempt was ineffectual. Higher wages on farms and in factories were offered, improvements were made in school and housing conditions, and efforts were put forth toward securing for the negro equality before the law and an abate- ment of mob violence, and for some measure of social cooperation between the races. All of this resulted in a betterment of conditions for the negro who remained, but the marked move- ment to the North continued. The number leaving the South in the year ending Sept. 1, 1923, according to the Department of Labor, was 478,100; the loss by States was as fol- lows: Georgia, 120,000; Alabama, 00,000; Florida, 90,000; Mississippi, 82,600; North Carolina, 25,000; South Carolina, 25,000; Louisiana, 15,000; Tennessee, 10,000; Virginia, 10,000; Arkansas, 5000; Kentucky, 2500; Texas, 2000; and Oklahoma, 1000. To a much larger extent than ever before, the migration came from the far South. Latterly an increasing number of Mexicans were being brought in to meet the farm labor shortage.
The effect of this migration on the population of the North was conspicuous in the census figures. From 1870 to 1910, the average decen- nial increase of southern negroes in the North was 67,000; in 1910-20 the increase was 321,- 890, or more than the aggregate increase of the preceding 40 years. In 1910 the negroes had constituted about 1.9 per cent of the total popu- lation of the North, at which point it had been fairly constant since 1870; in 1920, their pro- portion had increased to 2.3 per cent. This in- crease, however, though striking, was not enough in itself to make the negro a disturbing factor in the North. Where trouble arose it was from the unequal distribution of the negro popula- tion. Nine States, holding 72.7 per cent of the total population of the North, accounted for 91.4 per cent of the total negro population of that territory (Pennsylvania, 284,568; New York, 198,483; Ohio, 186,187; Illinois, 182,- 724; Missouri, 178,241; New Jersey, 117,132; Indiana, 80,810; Michigan, 60,082; Kansas, 57,025). Most serious was the concentration in the large cities; New York, Chicago, and Phila- delphia, for example, contained 26.9 per cent of the northern negroes, as compared with 15.9 per cent of the total population. The influx of
negroes to the larger cities appeared to be tak- ing on flood proportions. In protest against the employment conditions resulting from the movement, East St. Louis rioted in 1917. Se- rious race riots broke out in Chicago, in 1919, in which there were killings on both sides. There were disturbances in Omaha and Wash- ington. These outbursts of race feeling were precipitated largely, it was claimed, by sensa- tional newspaper publicity, and in Chicago in particular by the difficulties of insufficient hous- ing. It being realized, however, that lack of understanding and cooperation between the races was the crux of the situation, and that this was only being aggravated by political as well as social segregation, there was appointed in 1918, under the Federal Department of Labor, a di- rector of negro economics, to ease the friction. Negro advisory committees, composed of repre- sentative white and colored citizens, were es- tablished throughout the South and in various northern centres, constituting agencies in which the two elements might work together toward a mutual understanding. In industry, the ne- gro immigration was in a limited measure tak- ing the place of the foreign-born as a source of labor supply for shops and factories. There had been fewer cases of open hostility between white and colored labor than had been antici- pated; requests for separate facilities had not been frequent The American Federation of Labor made an effort to prevent the drawing of the color line in the unions; and when several international and local unions refused to accept this principle, it provided in 1920 that where internationals refused to admit colored workers to membership, organization would be author- ized under a charter of the PVderation. The Federation also sent an organizer to work among the negroes in the South. The attitude of the white worker in general seemed to be that while he was averse to the negro in industry, still, since the negro had come, it was better to have him organized. It was noteworthy that during the Chicago riots, the organized white workers in the packing houses guaranteed that there would be no trouble between them and the negro workers. See LYNCIIINGS.
NEIHARDT, JOHN GNEISENAU (1881- ). An American writer, born at Sharpsburg, 111. lie studied at the Nebraska Normal School and from 1901 to 1907 lived among the Omaha In- dians to study their character and history. His books include The Divine Enchantment (1900) ; The Lonesome Trail (1907); The Dawn Build- er (1911); The Quest, poems (1916); The Song of Three Friend* (1919); and Two Mothers, a drama (1921). The Song of Three Friends was awarded a prize by the Poetry Society of America as the best volume of verse of 1919. He edited several collections of verse and contributed frequently to magazines. From 1912 he was literary critic of the Minneapolis Journal.
NEJD, EMIRATE OF. See ARABIA..
NELSON, KNUTR (1845-1923). An Ameri- can lawyer and legislator (see VOL. XVI). He was a member of the Senate for five successive terms and was reflected for the term ending 1925. At the time of his death, on Apr. 28, 1923, he was the oldest member of that body in point of service. He died on Apr. 28, 1923.
NEO-LAMABCKIAN THEOEY. See HE*
REDITT.
Ideas of the nature of
NBBNST LAW
Bright'e disease underwent much change in the decade 1914-24. Thus it was pretty well shown through experiment that nephritis does not represent a poisoning through the exposure of the organs in eliminating toxic material. This kind of injury, which may be studied in actual poisoning by mercury and oxalic acid, bears no resemblance to ordinary nephritis. The latter may usually be traced to a focus of infection somewhere *in the body, as in the teeth or ton- sils, while the organs are also attacked by the germs and their toxic products in various gen- eral infections. No doubt dietetic and other abuses may lower the resistance of the organs to infection. Passage of the prohibition amend- ment in the United States had not secured any lowering of the mortality of Bright's dis- ease up to 1924, and it must be borne in mind that chronic disease of vital organs late in life is common among the clergy as well as in other abstinent classes of mnnknid.
The old distinction between medical and surgi- cal nephritis is no longer upheld, for a uni- lateral nephritis, once thought to be the neces- sary result of mischief lower down in the urin- ary tract, may be found due to a blood infection. There seems to be very liltlo difference between the causal factors in nephritis proper and those of disease of the kidney and the pelvis, peri- nephritis, and even stone jn the kidney; for focal infection may be tiaced in all of them. Under diagnosis the practice of microchemical analysis of the blood will give the best idea of the functional efficiency of diseased kidneys. Convulsions seen in urirmia aie no longer re- garded as the result of retained toxic material in the blood but as that of increase in intra- cranial pressure. Kor the iclief of nephritis wonders may be accomplished by proper diet, as in the case of the disappearance of dropsy on a diet very poor in salt
NEKNST DISTRIBUTION LAW. Sec CHEMISTRY, PJIYSICAI .
NERNST HEAT THEOREM. See CHEM- ISTRY, PHYSICAL.
NETHERLANDS, THE, or HOLLAND. A kingdom situated on the North Sea, lying be- tween the Kingdom of Belgium on the south and west and CJormany on the east. Its area is 13,205 square miles, of which 617 consist of water. The population in 1923 was 7,086,913 (49.64 per cent male and 5036 per cent female), an increase of 109,483 over the census of 1921 and 221,599 over that of 1920. The density of population per square mile amounted to (152.99 The urban population constituted 45.66 per cent of the whole, and the rural 54.34 per cent. Emigrants in 1922 amounted to 2158, of whom 1912 departed from Dutch ports for North America, J95 for South America, and 47 for Africa. The royal family and most of the in- habitants were members of the Reformed Church, which was under Presbyterian govern- ment, but complete liberty of conscience was granted to all religions. At the end of 1920, there were 2,826,633 adherents of the Dutch Reformed Church; other Protestants numbered 832,164; Catholics, 2,444,583; Jansenists, 10,- 461; Jews, 115,222; other known creeds, 635,- 241. The chief cities with their population in 1923 were: Amsterdam, 700,303; Rotter- dam, 535,033; The Hague, 367,667; Utrecht, 146,976; Groningen, 94,217; and Haarlem, 80,383.
Agriculture. The total area of agricultural
917
NETHERLANDS
land (in hectares; 1 hectare = 2.47 acres), in 1922 was 2,229,413 (in 1913, 2,180,591); arable land, 902,266 (27.61 per cent; 882,255 hectares m 1913); meadows, 1,231,052 (37.67 per cent; 1,221,876 in 1913) ; gardens and orchards, 96,- 095 (2.94 per cent; 81,460 in 1913); forests, 248,208 (7.6 per cent; 257,939 in 1913); un- cultivated land, 466,066 (14.26 per cent; 515,- 143 in 1913). F
PRINCIPAL CROPS, 1922
(I bushel = .35238 hectoliter)
Hectares Hectoliters Hectoliters
GRAINS
Oats . Rye . Wheat Barley
1922
159,441
202 1GS
60,551
24,899
1922
6,279.000 0,040.000 2,171,000 1.10H.OOO
1915
7,292,000 5,679,000 2,498,000 1,191,000
|
MISCELLANEOUS |
|||
|
Potatoes . . . 192,884 57,204,000 44,663,000 Sugar (beet) |
|||
|
(metric tons) . |
. 55 956 |
1,818,000 |
1,714,000 |
|
Peas |
32 222 |
914,000 |
641,000 |
|
Beans |
21,315 9,694 |
65l',000 88,000 |
430^000 101,000 |
|
Flax seed |
|||
|
Canary seed |
1,084 |
33,000 |
22,000 |
Live stock and poultry (1921 and 1910): horses, 363,608 and 327,377; cattle, 2,062,771 and 2,026,!>43; sheep, 068,211 arid 889,036; pigs, 1,519,245 and 1,259,844; chickens, 9,660,800 and 0,709,593.
Imports and Exports of Foodstuffs. Im- ports of grain for 1923 totaled 1,783,397 metric tons, of which 637,803 came from the United States, as compared with 1,710,419 of which 1,012,850 came from the United States in 1922; imports of flour were ] 40,299 metric tons, of which 126,7S 7 came from the United States, as against 103,025 of which 84,325 came from the United States in 1922. The export of dairy products amounted to 198,110 metric tons in 1923, as against 181,916 in 1922; this was des- tined chieily for Great Britain Exports of loaf sugar amounted to 210,703 metric tons as
PRODUCTION STATISTICS, 1921
|
Factories Number Cocoa and chocolate 50 Cocoa Powder . 43 |
Production (in guilders) 55.842.K69 12,710,198 kg. 6 232 354 " |
|
Shoe . . 349 Soft soap . . .40 Hard and liquid soap 37 Soap powder 29 Potato flour, dextrine glucose, and syrup . . 40 Electrical machinery and appli- ances . . 36 Metal ware . . . .35 Bolt, nuts, rivet and screw . 19 Tin ware . . . . H Metal, smelting and bottle cap 18 |
40,79fi.088 35,245,761 kg. H, 570, 282 " 15,231,901 " 27,503,297 12,858,020 11,301,873 10,123,558 7,387,607 7 285,334 |
PRODUCTION STATISTICS, 1920
Factories
Number
Flour 31
Tile 107
Brick 408
Breweries 232
Lime and sandstone 16
Motor 61
Tee 37
Malt 8
Production
(in guilders)
192,541,666
56,653,014
46,725,396
35,926,210
3,552,786
8,085,044
1,640,717
1,195,921
ft JBT H HiUL A KD8
918
JNJOTAA
ELANDS
|
against 197,615 in 1922; this, too, was exported principally to Great Britain. Mining and Manufacturing. Mining was limited in the Netherlands to coal mining in the province of Limburg. The coal production was estimated at 5,500,000 metric tons for 1923, against 4,570,000 for 1922 and 3,018,000 in 1917. In 1923 there were 933 dairies. The production of butter in 1922 amounted to 04,- 633,000 kilograms, and of cheese, 97,621,230 kilograms. The beet sugar refineries numbered 21 in 1922, while the total sugar production amounted to 175,331 metric tons for 1922-23. In 1922 there were 33 potato flour factories, 18 cardboard factories, and 16 margarine fac- tories. The latter produced 87,902,720 kilo- grams of margarine. Communications. Length of railways in 1923 was 3671 kilometers; in 1922, 3428; in 1910, 3215. The estimated receipts were 120.43 florins per kilometer for 1!)23, as against 130.87 florins for 1022, In 1923 there were 606 steam- ers (2,398,618 gross registered tons), against 664 for 1922 (2,164,730 gross registered tons) ; motor and motor sailing vessels, 80 (63,940 gross registered tons), against 73 for 1922 (51,- 351 gross registered tons). |
in 1918. Transit trade showed 8,767,840 metric tons against 13,296,287 for 1922. |
|
PRINCIPAL IMPORTS AND EXPORTS Article Quantity Value (metric tons) (1000 guilders) 1922 1923 1922 1923 IMPORTS Coal .6216044 6386716 102508 113786 |
|
|
Wheat 541*299 '566*400 72*914 68*275 |
|
|
Corn 879*506 710*114 78*256 67*115 |
|
|
Lumber (pine). .1,045,710 994*871 68^058 66,'406 Copran 173 655 147 545 48 796 46 878 |
|
|
Cotton yarn 32,740 25*. 726 50J29 46,*752 Linseed 248,612 195 946 51 834 41 650 |
|
|
Cotton, raw . . . 20,807 19*006 26*945 82*052 Barley 143,918 283,751 15,259 25,088 EXJ'OBTS Cotton piece goods 21,230 23,714 74,621 82,825 Sugar, loaf 197 615 210 7(>3 50 595 71 475 |
|
|
Cheese 65 213 61*982 53'6I?6 54*226 |
|
|
Margarine .... 59 163 70 °77 86 246 49*620 |
|
|
Coal 2 256*017 2 SBo'llQ 38*262 52*655 |
|
|
Butter . . . 23|l25 ' 23>36 44*125 41*,330 Milk, conden&ed. 84,674 98,670 33,567 40,846 Pork . . . . 28 524 33 557 °9 911 34 251 |
|
|
Coconut oil . 83,215 (.5,817 36,303 31.607 Flower bulbs . . U4.0S1 21,951 22,641 26,383 |
|
|
TONNAGE ENTERED AND CLEARED AT ROTTERDAM AND AMSTERDAM (1923) (In cubic meters) January- November, 1922 1923 Total Entries 44 099 955 40,669,545 |
FOREIGN TRADE BY COUNTRIES . (in 1000 guilders) Countries Imports from Exports to 1922 1923 1922 1923 Germany . ... 608 437 494 868 167 775 186 790 |
|
Great Britain . . . .323*569 308/222 302*969 359*600 United States . . 270,799 256.017 61i,094 69,462 Belgmna . .. .187,966 215,260 174,176 139,328 Dutch East Indies 102,373 114,184 127,382 110850 |
|
|
Rotteidam 33,792,324 29,805,048 Amsterdam . . . 8,509,459 8,817,824 Total Clearances 28,468,683 28,485,391 Rotterdam 21,435,815 20,870,426 |
|
|
Amsterdam ... . 5,513,201 6,010,892 RI\FR SHIPPING (1923) (In 1000 kilograms) January- November, 1922 1923 Total Entries 16,931,645 11,105,351 Through Lobith 10,361,740 5,193,879 Total Clearances 21972,497 16,061,245 Through Lobith 13,241,713 7,691,242 |
Leading imports from the United States for 1923 (in 1000 guilders) were wheat, 33,970; raw cotton, 28,092; corn, 22,157; linseed cake 20,992; wheat flour, 20,992. Leading exports to the United States were flower bulbs, 9500; rub- ber, 3885; silk, artificial yarns, 3590; quinine and other salts, 3018; chincona bark, 2392. Finance. The national debt, consolidated (Jan. 1, 1923), was 2,828,319,550 guilders; float- ing (December, 1923), 648,856,000 guilders, of which 102,256,000 were advanced to the col- onies, against (December, 1922) 805,937,000 guilders, of which 323,750,000 were advanced to the colonies. |
|
Idle tonnage at the end of 1023 totaled 38 ships (221,000 gross registered tons) against 76 (317,000 gross registered tons) for 1922 The movement of merchandise, in metric tons, was as follows: |
|
|
NATIONAL BUDGET, 1923 AND 1924 (Estimated) (In 1000 guilders) Extraor- Year Ordinary dinary Crisis Total Expenditure 1923 620 397 183 999 3 829 808 225 |
|
|
1922 1923 Total 38 345 769 |
|
|
By ocean 23 294 849 |
|
|
Rotterdam : Total . ..31,016,337 23,658,178 By ocean 18981585 15677725 |
|
|
1924 646 892 112 634 6*737 765*264 |
|
|
Revenue 1923 567 696 14 210 581 907 |
|
|
By river and canal . . . 12,034,'752 7, '980*45 3 Amsterdam : Total 5,354 990 5 111 925 |
|
|
1924 548628 40*793 589*422 |
|
|
Rv nronn A 1 T) 72*7 A Oin'oAQ |
|
|
By river 1,234,263 881,682 |
ACTUAL RECEIPTS, 1922 AND 1928 |
Commerce. The foreign trade in 1923 totaled, in imports, 2,009,225,705 guilders, against 2,027,598,760 for 1922 and 608,357,000 in 1918. Exports showed 1,303,220,602 guilders, against 1,221,231,211 for 1022 and 381,210,000
(In 1000 guilders)
Extraor- Revenufl Ordinary dinary Crisis Total
1922 468,769132,13631,542682,447
1928 428,866 106,781 13,566 549,218
Decrease 89,908 25,355 17,976 88,284
NETHERLANDS g
Tho following indicates currency in circula- tion:
|
Date |
Gold |
Silver |
Note Oreulutioii |
|
|
Dec 31, Dec 31, Feb. 4, |
1022 1923 1924 |
. . 581,790 . . ..581.787 . . .581713 |
9,074 8,674 10,120 |
969,251 1,031,279 1,030,419 |
The exchange for the dollar (par, 2.488 guilders to $1) was in December, 1922, 2.51; in December, 1923, 2.03; on Feb. 2, 1924, 2.05. The wage index (January, 1914 ~ 100 for five cities and 14 classes of workers) was 240.4 for July, 1923, against 205.2 for July, 1921, and 252.3 for January, 1923 The average hourly wage (first half of 1923 in 14 industries of Am- sterdam, in Dutch cents) was: skilled, 83, semi- skilled, 70; unskilled, 09. Municipal wages (1923) were: miners (below the surface) 0.43 florins per shift; (above the surface) 4.33 florins per shift; gas workers, 0.70 florin per hour; electrical workers, 0.80 florin per hour; metal workers, 0.02 florin per hour; building workers: masons, 1 09 florins per hour; carpenter, 1.01 florins per hour; assistant mason, 0.92 florin per hour; gun workers, 0.75 florin per hour; muni- tions and explosive workers, 0.08 florin per hour; construction workers, 081 florin per hour. Collective wage agreements numbered 498 for January-November, 1923, against 500 for 1922 Strikes and lockouts were 257 for January- November, 1923, against 308 for 1922. There were 3883 commercial failures for January- November, 1923, against 3403 for 1922. Unem- ployed workers numbered 102,225 on Dec. 31, 1923, against 100,528 on Dec. 31,1922, princi- pally in the metal and building trades; a total of 110,208 sought unemployment aid on Jan. 20, 1924. The wholesale price index (1013 — 100 for 48 articles) was 151 for 1923, against 100 for 1922 and 182 for 1921. The retail price index (1913= 100 for 17 articles in six cities) was 145 for 1923, against 157 for 1922 and 179 for 1921.
History. The political history of the Netherlands during the War was the familiar tale of neutral nations: to remain aloof from the struggle by word and deed, to render what aid was possible to the unfortunate victims of the War, to carry on the usual international relations as far as might be, and at the same time to supply the daily wants of the population in spite of the sadly disrupted state of the world, were the concerns of the Dutch in the years 1914-18. The outbreak of the War brought the whole military strength of Hol- land into the field. By Aug. 4, 1914, 200,000 men were under arms, and as hostilities pro- gressed and the work of policing the coasts and the frontiers increased, more units were called up, so that at its height the Dutch army totaled 400,000 men. The expense, necessarily, was enormous for so small a country. In Decem- ber, 1914, a loan of $100,000,000 had to be floated to meet the costs of the establishment. In all a debt of more than $750,000,000 was incurred which could be wholly attributed to the War, i.e. for the upkeep of the army and navy, the care of refugees arid interned soldiers, etc. The martial character of the country be- came more striking year by year. In 1915 all workmen engaged in the manufacture of muni- tions were placed under martial law, and a check was put on their goings and comings;
9 NETHERLANDS
later in the year, the ever-present threat of invasion prompted the government to declare a state of siege in some of the communes of north Holland and also in some parts of Ara- Hterdam. Not until the Armistice did Holland dare relax her vigilance, and then the threat of mutiny among the soldiers hastened de- mobilization sooner than the government might have wished. The problem of the returning sol- diers, in view of the disorganization of indus- try and the dearth of housing, contributed greatly to the trials of the state. The feeding of the population and the providing of indus- try with the raw material necessary for its operation were perhaps Holland's most press- ing problems. Normal activity was dependent on keeping the regular channels of trade clear Having become a country of truck farmers and cattle breeders, Holland of necessity depended on Germany for her coal and iron and on France, Great Britain, and the United States for her foodstuffs and textiles. A brisk overseas and land trade was carried on with all these as well as with Switzerland, Italy, and Austria-Hun- gary. The War curtailed "intercourse on land, except with Germany; and the British blockade and the German submarine policy as well as American seizure of Dutch ships in 1918 played havoc with the Dutch merchant marine. More and more, Holland was put at the mercy of belligerents, and only the conclusion of the War checked the progress of the famine gripping hei people. Extraordinary administrative measures had to be taken. In 1914 and 1915 the export of cereals and flour, cotton, rice, and linseed was prohibited. In 1915 the Netherlands Overscan Trust was formed for the purpose of handling imports. Before Great Britain and France would give their consent to the maintenance of the usual trade relations, it was necessary for the Trust to give assurances that the articles imported would not be reshipped to Germany. In 1910 the scarcity of flour forced the pro- hibition of the baking of white bread; maximum prices for cereals were fixed. The dislocation of trade with the Dutch East Indies compelled the government to maintain a strict surveillance oxer the distribution of foodstuffs and fodder What little prosperity there was grew out of the maintenance of relations with the Central Powers; Germany and Austria took Holland's vegetables and dairy products, and Germany, in turn, sent coal and iron.
In a situation of such complex relations the rise of irritations and misunderstandings was inevitable. Clashes with Germany and the Al- lies were frequent. During 1915-17, notes were interchanged frequently with Germany over the violation of Dutch neutrality by the landing of airships, the stopping of merchant vessels, and the mining and torpedoing of Dutch ships; in 1918, feeling ran high over the British and American seizure of Dutch ships. And yet, in spite of vexations of this character and personal distress due to the hardships of the War, the Dutch worked unsparingly in the interests of their less fortunate neighbors. The invasion of Belgium sent into Holland some 1,200,000 ref- ugees who were clothed and fed for varying lengths of time. By the end of the War there were still about 30,000 such refugees partaking of the hospitality of the Dutch. Interned sol- diers at times numbered as many as 50,000, most of them Belgians, but also many Russian and German deserters. The Dutch Red Cross
9*0
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did yeoman work in facilitating the exchange of British and German prisoners. In all these humanitarian activities the government must have expended $25,000,000, while private con- tributions easily reached a similar amount.
These preoccupations did not check civil and political developments of extraordinary impor- tance. By the electoral reform act of Dec. 12, 1917, universal suffrage and proportional rep- resentation were established. Sex disabilities of women were likewise removed. In 1917, by a constitutional amendment, the government was ordered to provide for the upkeep of de- nominational as well as secular schools. As a result of an increasing labor agitation during the War, a series of enactments was promul- gated in 1919 which aimed at better social and working conditions. By these laws, the eight- hour day was assured 'in factories and offices; workmen's insurance was extended to all in- dustries except agriculture and navigation; the general supervision of health activities was turned over to a state health council; a coun- cil of labor was erected to advise generally all administrative departments in the conduct of labor affairs. But the inability of affairs to mend, in spite of paternalistic legislation, in- creased the insurgency of the labor classes. In 1918 and 1919, under the leadership of Troel- stra, the Social Democrats pressed for a po- litical revolution, some even demanding the abdication of the Queen. Continued hard times brought on a serious dock strike during Febru- ary-April, 1920, and such outbreaks were fre- quent in the subsequent years. The threat of proletarian control forced the union of most of the elements of the Right with the result that a Catholic government was constituted in 1918, for the first time, under Jonkheer Ruys de Beerenbrouck. The elections of 1922 for the second chamber returned 32 Catholics, 20 So- cial Democrats, 16 Antirevolutionists, and some others, so that the Beerenbrouck ministry con- tinued in power by the support of the Right bloc.
After the War the country was plunged more deeply into the stormy sea of foreign relations. On Nov. 10, 1918, the Dutch were unpleasantly surprised by the presence of the former Kaiser in their midst. His stay at A moron gen was un- molested, and in spite of demands from the Allies for his extradition in 1920, the Dutch government refused to yield him up. All other questions yielded precedence to the demand of Belgium for the revision of the treaties of 1839. Belgium, in effect, desired sovereignty over the western Scheldt as well as tho district of southern Limburg on the east. Belgium sought the left bank of the Scheldt for the further develop- ment of Antwerp; Limburg (q.v.) was desired for strategic and economic reasons. For the consideration of the question the Supreme Coun- cil in 1919 created an international commission, but it circumscribed that body's activities by indicating that it would refuse to countenance any transfer of territory. The disputants were advised to come to an amicable understanding over the matter of waterways. In 1920 an agreement was reached on the administration of the Scheldt, the Antwerp-Meuse-Rhine canal and two other water systems. Further difficulties arose, however, with Belgium's insistence that the disposition of the Weilingen at the entrance to the Scheldt, for the pass controlled the port of Zeebrugge, be also considered* On this no
agreement could be reached. There were other international concerns to occupy the attention of the Dutch in this period. In 1920, Holland joined the League of Nations. On Dec. 23, 1920, after heated debate, the Parliament voted to resume relations with the Vatican. These had terminated in 1907. In the same year, al- though it formally refused to open commercial relations with Russia, the Foreign Office indi- cated that it would not interfere with business transactions. In 1922, Holland welcomed to The Hague the Permanent Court of Internation- al Justice which had been created by the League of Nations. The question of the defense of the Dutch East Indies agitated the people profound- ly during 1920-23. In 1921, the Queen's ad- dress from the throne included a request for the strengthening of the fleet, and the proposal was backed up by the resolution of the Indian Coun- cil. In 1922 the government laid before the second chamber an ambitious programme of naval construction. (See NAVIFS OF THE WORLD.) The measure was stubbornly contest- ed in 1922 and 1923. Its opponents showed that it meant an additional cost to Holland of $14,000,000 yearly for 12 years, and to the colonies of $20,800,000 for the same term. Nevertheless it was only after a bitter struggle that profoundly shook the whole kingdom that the naval bill was rejected, Oct. 26, 1923, by a vote of 50 to 49. The Ruys de Beerenbrouck cabinet now resigned. The inability of the three parties of the Right to reach 'an agree- ment compelled the Queen, after a three-month suspension of governmental activities, to recall de Beerenbrouck in January, 1924.
NETHERLANDS INDIA. See DUTCH EAST INDIES.
NEUILLY, TREATY OF. See PEACE CONFER- ENCE AND TREATIES.
NEUROSES. See PSYCHOLOGY, ABNORMAL. NEUTRALS IN THE WAR. See WAR, DIPLOMACY OF THE.
NEUTRODYNE. See RADIO TELEPHONY. NEVADA. Nevada is the sixth State in size (110,690 square miles), and the forty- eighth in population; capital, Carson City. The population decreased from 81,875 in 1910 to 77,407 in 1920, a loss of 5.5 per cent. The white population fell off from 74,276 to 70,099; Indian, from 5240 to 4907; negro, from 513 to 340; native white, from 56,277 to 55,897; foreign-born white, from 17,999 to 14,802. The urban population of the State rose from 13,367 to 15,254, while the rural population decreased from 68,508 to 62,153. The only important city in the State is Reno, with 10,867 inhabitants in 1910, and 12,016 in 1920.
Agriculture. Nevada is, agriculturally, one of the least important States, although its ag- riculture is second only to its mining, and no other industry approaches it. The population of the State decreased 5.5 per cent in the dec- ade 1910-20, but the number of farms increased 17.6 per cent (from 2689 to 3163). The acre- age in farms decreased from 2,714,757 to 2,357,163 in 1920, or 13.2 per cent; and the im- proved land in farms, from 752,117 to 594,741 acres. The percentage of land used for agricul- tural purposes was 3.9 in 1910 and 3.4 in 1920. The total value of farm property showed an apparent increase from $60,399,365 to $99,779,- 666, or 65.2 per cent; the average value per farm, from $22,462 to $31,646, or 40.4 per cent. In interpreting these values and indeed all com-
NEVADA
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OTBVAXtA
parative values in the decade 1914-24, the in- flation of currency in the latter part of the period is to be taken into consideration. The index number of prices paid to producers of farm products in the United States was 104 in 1910 and 216 in 1920. Of the total of 3163 farms in 1920, 2699 were operated by owners, 168 by managers, and 296 by tenants. The com- parative figures for 1910 were 2175, 181, and 333. White farmers in 1920 numbered 2944, compared with 2528 in 1910. In 1920, native white farmers numbered 2060, compared with 1661 in 1910; foreign-born white farmers, 884, compared with 867. Colored farmers in 1920r numbered 219, of whom 208 were Indians; in 1910, 161, of whom 148 were Indians. Farms free from mortgage in 1920 numbered 1599, compared with 1805 in 1910; those under mort- gage, 884, compared with 361. The number of dairy cows decreased from 17,084 to 16,482; "beef cows/' from 210,546 to 189,960; sheep in- creased from 824,875 to 880,580. The area un- der irrigation in 1919 was 561,447 acres; in
1909, 701,833. The estimated production of the chief farm crops in 1923 was as follows: corn, 31,000 bushels; wheat, 507,000; oats, 122,000; barley, 226,000; potatoes, 698,000; and hay, 473,000 tons Comparative figures for 1913 are: corn, 34,000 bushels; wheat, 1,081,000; oats, 473,000; barley, 402,000; potatoes, 1,760,000; and hay, 646,000 tons
Mining. The most important mineral prod- ucts of the State are silver, gold, gypsum, and copper Silver, which is the most important mineral, showed a considerable decline in the decade 1914-24; in 1014 the production was 15,455,491 fine ounces; 1915, 14,459,840; 1916, 13,837,525; 1017, 11,260,969; 1H18, 10,000,509;
1910, 6,863,580; 1020, 7,745,093; 1021, 7,083,- 782; and 1022, 8,619,587. The value of the gold produced also decreased sharply in the dec- ade; the output in 1014 was valued at $11,481,- 188; 1010, $8,866,237; 1018, $6,610,937; 1020, $3,566,728; and 1022, $3,297,384. Copper showed an increase in the middle of the decade but de- clined sharply in the later years; the production in 1014 was 00,080,450 pounds; 1916, 105,116,- 813; 1018, 116,310,441; 1920, 50,559,763; 1921, 10,061,401, and 1022, 23,133,001 The small out-
visor of trade and industrial education. The object in vocational education has been to reach, through a cooperative spirit, as large a number as possible of persons who may be benefited by the various types of instruction offered, in order that the productive industries of the State may be encouraged and the intelligence of those em- ployed in the trades and other industrial pur- suits may be increased ; and efforts toward these objects have been successful. The cost of edu- cation in the State from 1012 to 1920 increased greatly; in 1012 the cost per pupil was $76.38; in 1920, $128.22; allowance is to be made, of course, for the decreased purchasing power of money. A high-school system was developed efficiently. The total enrollment in the schools in 1913 was 13,622; in the elementary schools in 1922 it was 11,518, and in the high schools, 2380. The total maintenance cost in 1022 was $1,381,752; in addition to this there was a permanent investment of more than $400,000 in grounds and buildings, making a total expend- iture for elementary and high schools of $1,784,- 831, or $122.74 per census child in the State. Illiteracy in the State decreased from 6.8 per cent in 1010 to 6.7 per cent in 1920. Among the native white population it increased from 0.3 to 0.5 per cent; among the foreign-born white, from 7 to 8.5; among the negro, it de- creased from 6 to 4.7.
Finance. For finance, see STATE FINANCES.
Political and Other Events. In the decade 1014-24, political control in Nevada fluctuated between the Democratic and Republican parties. In 1014 elections were held for governor, Sen- ator, and Representatives to Congress. The Democratic candidate for governor, Emmet D. Boyle, was elected, defeating Gov. Tasker L. Oddie. Senator Newlands was reflected, while the Republicans elected a Representative to Congress. At this election an amendment pro- viding for woman suffrage was adopted. In 1016 the Democrats had the predominance of strength and elected Key Pittman United States Senator. In the presidential voting of this year, President Wilson received 17,776 votes; Charles E. Hughes, 12,127. In this election, for the first time in the history of the State, women cast votes for President. The Democrats
put in 1021 was due chiefly to the business de- were again successful in 1018, reflecting Gov-
pression, which caused a decrease in the de- «— i- o-_-A__ XT -_.i__ j^ j^j _•_ imo
mand for copper. The production of gypsum during the decade ranged from 100,000 to 175,- 000 short tons per year, with a value in excess of $1,000,000. In addition to the minerals mentioned, the State also produces lead, man- ganiferous ore, and zinc, but in comparatively small quantities. The total value of the mineral products in 1921 was $14,038,071 ; $25,648,061 in 1920; $24,457,735 in 1919; $51,080,169 in 1018, and $29,984,338 in 1014.
Manufactures. See UNITED STATES, Manu- factures.
Education. The educational problem of Ne- vada is made difficult by the State's sparse pop- ulation and its vast area. In spite of these difficulties, the progress of education in the decade 1914-24 was constant. Efforts were made toward the consolidation of schools and the development of vocational education. The Legislature passed many measures which great- ly aided the administration of the educational system. Vocational education is administered by the Director of Vocational Education and Industrial Rehabilitation, who is also super-
ernor Boyle. Senator Newlands died in 1918, and Charles B. Henderson was appointed to fill the office until the election of his successor. The Republicans returned to power in 1920, electing T. L. Oddie, former governor, United States Senator. A woman, Anne Martin, was the Senatorial candidate on an independent ticket, the first woman candidate for this office. In the presidential voting of this year, Warren G. Harding received 15,479 votes; James M. Cox, 9851. In the elections of 1922, there was a political reaction, and the Democrats elected every State official except one. James W. Scrugham, the Democratic candidate for gov- ernor, was elected, and Senator Pittman was reflected to the Senate. The Supreme Court in 1923 declared unconstitutional the prohibi- tion act passed by the Legislature in that year. On July 6, 1923, a fire at Goldfield resulted in the death of one person and a property loss of more than $500,000. At a State Republican convention in May, 1924, the nine delegates of the State were pledged to vote for President Coolidge at the national convention. Legislation. The most important acts of
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the Legislature in the decade 1914-24 are noted below. The Legislature, in February, 1915, passed a so-called "easy divorce bill/' restoring the six months' residence requirement which had been abolished by the Legislature of 1913. The Legislature of 1919 provided for a budget and passed measures providing for an eight-hour day on public works. It also passed statutes defining and punishing criminal syn- dicalism and sabotage. In 1921 the Legislature created town-planning commissions for incor- porated cities and towns, declared oil pipe lines to be common carriers, and made provision for the teaching of thrift in the public schools. A bill for capital punishment by lethal gas instead of by hanging or shooting was signed by Gover- nor Boyle on Mar. 28, 1921, and on February 8, 1924, Gee Jon, a Chinese convicted of murder, was executed by this method. In 1923 the Legislature repealed the State prohibition law which had been declared unconstitutional and substituted a measure corresponding to the Volstead Act. It also granted equal rights in the guardianship of children to women, ex- tended the absent voter privilege to persons who because of physical disability expect to be con- fined to their homes on Election Day, made the possession of drugs illegally obtained a crime, passed a uniform trading act, enacted a mod- ified old age pension law, and created a small claims court.
NEVADA, UNIVERSITY or. A coeducational State institution at Reno, Nev., founded in 1874. The student enrollment of the university increased from 340 in 1914 to 825 in the year 1923-24, with 134 in the summer session of 1923. During the decade the faculty likewise increased from 50 to 62 members. The library rose from 28,000 bound volumes in 1915 to 38,- 843 in 1923. An agricultural building was con- structed in 1918, an educational building in 1920, and a building to house the Federal Bu- reau of Mines' Rare and Precious Metals Ex- periment Station in 1921. Walter E. Clark, Ph.D., LL.D., succeeded Archer Wilmot Hendrick as president in 1917.
NEVTN, ABTHUR FINLEY (1871- ). An American composer, born at Edgeworth, Pa. Having received his first musical education from his father, he entered the New England Conservatory in 1891, studying with 0. Bendix (piano) and P. Goetschius (theory). From 1893 to 1897 he studied in Berlin with Klind-
NEVINSON, HENBY WOOD (?- ). An English newspaper correspondent and writer. He was correspondent for the Daily Chronicle in the Greco-Turkish War of 1897, traveled much in Spain, Africa, and elsewhere in the years following, and reported for various newspapers campaigns in Morocco and the Balkans in 1912. He was accredited by the War Office as official correspondent at the Dardanelles for several papers and was wounded during operations there. He was later correspondent with the British armies in Salonica, Egypt, France, and Germany. He was editorial writer for several important papers and wrote much on politics and other subjects. His books include: The Thirty Days9 War (1898) ; Books and Personal- ities (1905) ; The Dawn in Russia (1906) ; The Dardanelles Campaign (1918); Lines of Life (1920); Essays in Freedom and Rebellion (1921); and Changes and Chances (1924).
NEW, HABKY STEWART (1858- ). A Postmaster General of the United States, born at Indianapolis, Ind., and educated at Butler University. He began as a reporter on the In- dianapolis Journal, and from 1878 to 1903 he was editor, part owner, and publisher of that newspaper. He served in the Spanish-American War. In 1896 he was elected to the Indiana State Senate for four years, and from 1900 to 1912 he was a member of the Republican Na- tional Committee. In 1917 he was elected to the United States Senate and served till 1923, when he was appointed Postmaster General by President Harding.
NEWARK. The largest city in the State of New Jersey. The population rose from 347,- 469 in 1910 to 414,524 in 1920 and to 438,69!) by estimate of the Bureau of the Census for 1923. The 250th anniversary of the city was celebrated during five months of 1916 with an historical pageant, a prolonged music festival and an exhibit of local industries. A memorial building was erected by the city at a cost of $1,500,000 to mark the occasion, and a copy of Verrocchio's equestrian statue of Bartolommeo Colleoni, executed by J. Massey, was given to the city by Christian Feigenspan. The city- planning commission in 1915 offered a compre- hensive plan for the city of Newark, and a zon- ing plan in 1919. The northeast wing of the city hospital was built in 1915; a site for tlu> Newark museum was bought in 1922 and $500,- 000 given by Louis Bamberger towards the
worth, Jedliczka (piano), and Boise and Hump- $625,000 necessary for the building. A new
erdinck (composition). He then returned to Edgeworth, where he lived until 1910, devoting his time to composition and teaching. In 1903- 04 he spent some time with the Blackfeet In- dians in Montana, collecting their melodies and legends. There he found the subject for his Indian opera Poia, which was produced at the Royal Opera in Berlin (1910), the first work of an American composer ever brought out at that institution. In 1915-20 he was professor of music at the University of Kansas, and in 1921 he became director of municipal music at Memphis, Tenn. He also wrote two other operas, The Daughter of the Forest (Chicago, 1918) and Twilight (not produced up to 1924) ; a masque, A Night in Yaddo-Land; two can- tatas, Roland and The Djinns; three orchestral suites, Miniature, Lorna Doone, and Love- Dreams; Bakawali Dances for orchestra; a string quartet and a piano trio; and piano numbers and songs.
two-story city market building covering two acres, with an open paved farmers' market of three acres, was finished in 1923 at a cost of $5,100,000. Port development also proceeded rapidly, especially along the tidal meadows known as Port Newark. Between 1913 and 1924, the city spent $6,000,000 reclaiming, fill- ing and developing a large area of the meadows and constructing a channel 30 feet deep and 400 feet wide. During the War about half the Port was taken over in the interest of the Fed- eral government, which built warehouses for use as army bases at a cost of upwards of $13,- 000,000. The Submarine Boat Corporation, which received a subsidy from Congress of $17,- 000,000, built 150 steel merchant vessels during the War from their shipyards on the reclaimed land; two other shipbuilding corporations were established in Kearny. Several streets were built in the district. Eventually, under the plan, 4000 acres of this part of the harbor were
NEWAfcK MUSIC FESTIVAL
to be filled in and improved, a number of water channels were to be dredged extending into all parts of the new land, piers were to be construct- ed at least 1200 feet long to accommodate ocean-going vessels, and equipped with adequate railroad tracks, electric traveling cranes, ware- houses, etc. In 1922, the Central Railroad of New Jersey was authorized by the War Depart-
9*3 NEWFOUNDLAND
St. John, 47,166 (42,511 in 1911); Moncton, 17,488; Fredericton, the capital, 8114.
Industry and Trade. In 1923 only 909,945 acres were under field crops out of the total area, although agriculture was the most im- portant industry. The increase over 1914 was only slight (904,055 acres in 1914). Total val- ue of yield in 1923, $20,864,300; in 1914, $20,-
ment to build a bridge across the lower end of 045,100. Oats, hay and clover, and potatoes re
Newark Bay to replace the trestle and draw- bridge then standing. This permission the city contested in the courts Further appropriations of $2,100,000 for the immediate improvement of Newark Bay and the Passaic and ITackensack Rivers was authorized by Congress in 1922; in 1924, the government had started additional widening of Newark Bay channel and expected to spend nearly $800,000 in that year. Direct boat operation was established between Newark and Pensacola, Fla., Mobile, Ala., Beaumont arid Port Arthur, Tex., Los Angeles and San Francisco, Cal., Portland, Ore., and Seattle, Wash. In 1923, new industrial establishments
ceived the greatest attention. Dairying showed substantial gains, since 1,224,930 pounds of butter were made in 1922, against the 849,633 pounds in 1910. Fishing continued to occupy a high station; in 1922 the catch was valued at $4,688,276, comparing favorably with that of 1913. Mineral production in 1922, largely made up of coal and gypsum, reached $2.263,692, as compared with $1,102,613 in 1913. Much of the forest land was in the hands of the govern- ment, and lumbering ranked high among the in- dustries. Lumber cut in 1921 was valued at $7,811,000; pulpwood made a very thriving in- dustry (61,810 tons), worth about $5,244,000.
nrnde investments in Newark of approximately Manufacturing progressed. In 1910 there were
$70,000,000. The commission form of govern- ment was adopted by the city in 1917.
NEWARK MUSIC FESTIVAL. See Music, Festiials.
NEW BEDFORD. The fourth city in Massa- chusetts in population and third in value of its inantifactuied products The population in- n cased from 90,052 in 1910 to 121.217 in 1920, nearly 40 per cent in 10 years, and to 130,072 In estimate of the Bureau of the Census for 1923. During the decade 1914-24 a State pier 750 feet long was completed. A modern inter- cepting sewer system was installed, adequate to care for a population of 300,000. The capital imestcd in the cotton mills, the leading indus- try, IOHC from $47,820,575 in 1914 to more than $175,000,000 in 1924, and the number of persons
1158 establishments (capital $36,125,012); in 1921, 1326 establishments (capital, $103,367,- 891). The output in 1910 was $35,422,302; in 1921, $59,514,741. Of the 50,406 horse power estimated available, 47,100 (1923) were already being worked. Exports, domestic and foreign, amounted to $75,924,379 in 1022-23 ($34,634,156 in 1912-13); imports in 1922-23, $27,574,66ft ($14,445,811 in 1912-13). In 11)22 there were 1947 miles of railway line as compared with 1545 in 1913.
Government. The receipts for 1922 were $3,226,728 ($1,459,000 in 1913), and expendi- tures $2,985,877 ($1,446,963 in 1913). The debt of the province in 1912 was only $4,693,- 457; by March, 1922, it had mounted to $25,- 463,932. The money expended on public works,
employed from 31,820 to 36,000 The public i.e. hydro-electric development, roads, bridges, library was increased from 150,000 to 160,000 ' " ......
volumes.
NEWBERRY, TBUMAN HANDY (1864- ). An American financier and public official, born in Detroit, Mich. He graduated from Yale in 1S85 and was later connected in various ca- pacities with railroads and other industrial or- ganizations. In the Spanish-American War he served as lieutenant and navigator. He was appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1905 and served until 1908, when he assumed the- post of Secretary of the Navy until March, 1909. In the War 'he was commander of the United States Naval Reserves. He was a can- didate for the United States Senate in 1918 and in the primaries defeated Henry Ford for the nomination. He was later elected. The ex- penditure of over $200,000 in the primaries led to accusations of corruption. He was tried and convicted in the State courts, but the case was dismissed in the United States Supreme Court.
and grants to railways, accounted for the in- crease. By 1922 teachers had increased to 2246 from the 2002 in 1913, and pupils to 71,346 from the 63,580 in 1913. The total cost of edu- cation also increased, from $942,203 in 1913 to $2,657,046 in 1922. Of the three universities in the province, Mt. Allison, the largest, was in favor of a federation of the universities of all Maritime Provinces, but the University of New Brunswick stood in the way. The prov- ince was represented in the Canadian Parlia- ment by 10 senators and 11 members of the house. The suffrage was exercised by both sexes.
NEW CALEDONIA. See PACIFIC OCEAN ISLANDS.
NEWELL, EDWARD THEODORE (1886- ). An American numismatist, born at Kenosha, Wis., and educated at Yale University. From 1907 he was engaged in research in numismatics and kindred subjects. He was a member of
Charges were brought before the Senate Com- numismatic and learned societies and wrote
mittee on Privileges and Elections in 1922, and he was exonerated. He resigned his seat following the elections of 1922. See MICHI- GAN.
NEW BBUNSWICK. A Canadian mari- time province, with an area of 27,985 square miles. In 1911 the population was 351,889; in 1921, 387,876, a gain of 10.23 per cent. The rural population in 1921 was 67.9 per cent of the total; in 1911 it had been 71.7 per cent. Populations of the principal towns in 1921 were:
many works on coins and minting, including The Dated Alexander Coinage of Sidon and Ake (1916); Tarsos under Alexander (1919); Myriandros (1920); and The Kyparisaia Hoard (1921). In 1917-18 he served with the military intelligence division of the United States Army.
NEWFOUNDLAND. A British dominion in North America, comprising the island of New- foundland and Labrador (q.v.). The area of the island is 42,734 square miles; of Labrador,
NEWFOUNDLAND
904
NEWFOUNDLAND
120,000. The total population increased from 242,619 in 1911 (Labrador, 3049) to 202,979 in 1921 (Labrador, 3621). St. John's, the capital, had a population of 37,047 in 1921 (32,292 in 1911); Harbor Grace, 3825 (4279); Bonuvista, 4025 (3911); Carbonear, 3320 (3540). The population, the great bulk of which was native and of English, Irish, and Scotch descent, still remained practically concentrated on the southeast coast. Emi- gration rose noticeably during the postwar de- pression.
Industry and Trade. Fishing continued to exceed all other occupations in importance. During the War it enjoyed exceptional prosper- ity in consequence of the general food shortage but afterward suffered an equally marked de- cline. For the falling-off in the cod fishery, a two-season attempt at government control of sales was held partly responsible. In 1922-23, 939 men and 51 vessels on the Banks brought in a catch of 69,372 quintals, compared with 152,374 quintals brought in by 1830 men in 104 vessels in 1913. The serious decline in the seal fishery was partly attributable to the loss of ships and the prohibitive cost of shipbuilding In 1913, 19 steamers with 3009 men brought in 272,065 seals; in 1022-23 it required a gov- ernment subsidy and removal of all rehtrictions to induce 8 vessels with 1224 men to rarry on the work, and only 101,770 seals weic taken in that year. The lobster, herring, and wliale fisheries also showed a distinctly downward trend; the lobster had grown scarce because of overfishing; the hen ing market \\as affected by renewed European competition; the whale fish- eries had practically ceased The prime leason for this serious slump, however, was the de- preciation of currencies in the Mediterranean countries which had grown to be the chief markets for the catch. At pievailing rates of exchange, that trade had ceased to be profitable To relieve the serious situation that ensued, the government in 1923 undertook a piogramme of encouragement for industry and fanning, in older to relieve the almost cntnc economic de- pendence of the island on its fisheries. Plans were under way in that m\ear to develop the water-power resources at Grand Lake on the west coast, at a cost of $18,000,000, part of which was to be advanced b> the Hiitisli govern- ment. This project was expected to supply power for a large pulp and paper mill, to hasten the development of mineral resources, and possibly to lead to the smelting of iron. Incidentally the preliminary work was reducing unemployment. The industries growing out of the great forest resources had already extended considerably. Spruce had replaced the disap- pearing pine as the important wood. Pulp and paper mills in 1920 exported 19,864 tons of pulp ($334,276) and 80,719 tons of paper ($4,725,- 660). The mineral production, chiefly iron, in 1912 amounted to $2,810,000; in 1920-21, 607,- 982 tons of iron, valued at $672,061, were ex- ported. Some copper and oil had been produced. The mineral resources were as yet unexplored, although in 1921 a beginning was made at the development of certain coal deposits and the in- vestigation of oil-bearing lands. Of the 4,000,- 000 acres capable of cultivation, up to 1923 only 220,000 were being utilized, and the gov- ernment was actively encouraging the popula- tion away from the sea to the land. The chief crops were hay, potatoes, cabbage, turnips, and
oats. The total value of farm crops in 1912 was $2,000,000; in 1921, $14,367,877. Exports, which in 1913-14 were valued at $14,720,000, had risen by 1918-19 to $36,784,616 but fell sharply in two years to $19,478,417 in 1921-22 ($20,956,863 in 1922-23). Imports fluctuated likewise: $14,793,000 in 1913-14; $40,533,388 in 1019-20; $18,309,853 in 1921-22; $19,321,- 824 in 1922-23. The export trade with Canada gained considerably in importance in 1922-23, but the chief markets were still the United Kingdom, Portugal, Spain, and the United States. The bulk of the imports came from Canada and the United States, the formei achieving first place as a source during this period. Dry codfish remained the principal ex- port, with manufactured paper in second place. Other important items in 1022-23 were iron ores, cod oil, herring, pulp and sulphide, lob- sters, sealskins, and seal oil. The total value of fishery exports in that year was $12,374,105) ($14,448,736 in 1921-22). 'The total revenue of the dominion, in bulk from customs, was $3,142,- 491, and the expenditure $3,524,653, in 1911-12. From 1017 to 1021, there was a decided surplus in the tioasury in spite of extraordinarily gen- 01 oils appropii'ations In 11)21-22, however, the ie\enue had shrunk to $8,200,080, with an e\- pendituie of $0,127,542, but from that year the situation began to mend. The increase of the funded public debt from $20,470,060 in 1012-1 3 to $55,030,027 in 1021 22 was largely due to war expendituie ($(50 per capita). In 1922-23, the revenue \vas $8,87(1,772, expenditure, $9,552,- 301; funded debt, $54,057,763. In 1010 there ^vero OU4 miles of government railroad, as com- pared with 7!)4 in 1013 Additional proposed extensions had been postponed during the Wai, after which, because of unpiofitable operation, the management of the roads and their exten- sion became* a conspicuous problem of the gov- ernment. Theie was an additional 47 miles of pmate line. The mileage of telegraph wiret* (open) increased from 4225 in 10H to 4600 in 1022; telephone wires, from 800 in 1013 to 065 in 1022. Steamship communications with the United Km£flom, Canada, and the United States were disorganized during the War, but were being steadily restored. Public instruc- tion still remained under denominational aus- pices, with government support, and school attendance had not been made compulsory by law.
History. A Newfoundland regiment was en- listed on the outbreak of the War, and saw serv- ice in (Jallipoli, Kgypt, France, and Flanders. In all, Homo (5500 men were under arms. In 1013, Sir Edward Morris's party was returned to office and continued in power through 1917, when the Morris government was succeeded by a ministry headed by Sir William Lloyd. In 1919, Sir Michael C'ashin became premier; in Novem- ber, 1010, as a result of the general election, Mr. Richard Squires succeeded to office. The Squires government, however, resigned in 1923, though the general election of May had returned it with a sizable majority. Mr. W. R. Warren was thon summoned by the governor. On Dec. 26, 1923, Premier Warren brought a grave ac- cusation against his predecessor, Sir Richard A. Squires, charging him, among other things, with the receipt of money from private corporations and diversion of government funds to individ- uals occupying high official posts. An inves- tigator for the British Colonial Office found the
NEW GUINEA
925
NEW HAMPSHIRE
charges in a large measure true; this was lol- Leading exports were copra, shell, cocoa, and lowed by the arrest of Squires in April and the birds of paradise. Imports included groceries, overthrow of the Warren government. Reor- hardware, tobacco, spirits, and oils. See also
ganization of the public services and a greater ETHNOGRAPHY.
honesty in government became the leading is- NEW HAMPSHIRE
sues of the day. Mr. Hickman, who succeeded
Mr. Warren, enjoyed only a brief tenure of office, for his party was turned out in the gen- eral election of June 3. He was in turn fol- lowed by Mr. Walter Warren who proceeded to investigate his predecessor's government.
NEW GUINEA. One of the largest islands of the world, in the East India Archipelago. Area, 320,000 square miles (estimated). Po- litically it was divided into: (1) Dutch New Guinea, area, 100,692 square miles; population (1920) 195,400; (2) Territory of Papua (British New Guinea), area, 00,540 square miles; population 270,888 (1922); (3) Terri- tory of New Guinea (late Kaiser Wilhelm's Land), area, 70,000 square miles; population (estimated), 100,000. This was for the main- land only.
Dutch New Guinea was administered from the Dutch East Indies (q.v.), of which, for trade and other purposes, it was considered an integral part.
The Territory of Papua was a possession of the Australian Commonwealth. Little of the area was under cultivation; the natives are averse to hard labor. In all, only 219,181 acres had been leased by planters (1922), and c-oconuts, rubber, and sisal hemp weie the chief products. Gold continued to be mined to some extent, and boring for oil began after 1915. The gold output declined from £04,115 in 1912- 13 to £00,091 in 1921-22 Imports and exports for 1913-14 were £212,134 and £123,140; for 1921, £484,770 and £172,072. Revenues and ex- penditures for 1913-14 were £54,703 and £81,- 095; in 1921-22, £73,288 and £124,912. To
New Hampshire is
the forty-third State in size (9341 square miles), and the forty-first in population; cap- ital, Concord. The population increased from 430,572 in 1910 to 443,083 in 1920, a gain of 2.9 per cent. The white population increased from 429,900 to 442,331; negro, from 504 to 621; native white, from 333,348 to 351,098. The number of foreign -born white fell from 96,- 558 to 91,233. The urban population of the State mounted from 255,099 to 279,701, while the rural decreased from 175,473 to 103,322. There are only two important cities, Manches- ter and Nashua. The former increased from
70.003 in 1910 to 78,384 in 1920; the latter from 26,005 to 28,379.
Agriculture. While the population of the State increased 2.9 per cent in the decade 1910- 20, the number of farms decreased 24.1 per cent (from 27,053 to 20,523) ; the land area in farms, from 3,249,458 acres to 2,003,800, or 19.9 per cent; the improved land in farms, from 929,185 acres to 702,902. The total percentage of land used for agricultural purposes decreased from 50.2 in 1910 to 45 in 1920; the percentage of improved farm land, from 28.0 to 27. The total value of farm property showed an apparent in- crease from $103,704,196 to $118,050,115, or
14.4 per cent; the average value per farm, from $3833 to $5782, or 50.8 per cent. In interpreting these values and indeed all com- parative values in the decade 1914-24, the in- flation of the currency in the latter part of the period is to be taken into consideration. The index number of prices paid to producers of farm products in the United States was 104 in 1910 and 210 in 1920. Of the total of 20,523
meet the deficit, Australia supplied an annual farms in 1920, 18,004 were operated by owners,
grant of £50,000. The Australian government KAO '— --J 10"n f— * A- rm-
showed itself /ealous in the preservation of the integrity of the natives and refused to settle cheap coolie labor in the territory. In 1922 Europeans numbered 1104. Port Moresby was the chief town and port of call for Australian ships.
The Territory of New Guinea was the name given to the former German New Guinea and included besides the late Kaiser Wilhelm's Land (area 70,000 square miles; population, 100,000), the Bismarck Archipelago (area 17,- 000 square miles; population, 188,000), made up of New Britain, New Ireland, and other is-
546 by managers, and 1373 by tenants. The comparative figures for 1910 were 24,493, 681, and 1879. White farmers numbered, in 1920, 20,509, of whom 17,890 were native and 2019 foreign-born. In 1910 the white farmers num- bered 27,038 (native-born, 24,347; foreign-born, 2691). Farms free from mortgage in 1920 num- bered 11,992, compared with 18,119 in 1910; those under mortgage numbered 5389, compared with 0234. The number of dairy cows increased from 101,278 in 1910 to 119,203 in 1920, in- dicating a decided trend toward the dairy in- dustry. "Beef cows," however, decreased from 10,175 to 5055, and sheep decreased from 31,201
lands, and Bougainville and Buka of the Sol- to 28,021. The estimated production of the
onion Islands group (area 3400 square miles; population, 17,000). On Sept. 12, 1914, an Aus- tralian force occupied the islands. A mandate was given to Australia for the territory by the League of Nations on Dec. 17, 1920; the Aus- tralian government established its civil admin- istration on May 9, 1921. The seat of govern- ment was at Rabaul on New Britain, the former German capital. In 1921, nonindigenous in- habitants numbered 3173, divided as follows: 715 British, 1402 Chinese, 215 Dutch, 579 Ger- mans, 87 Japanese, and 60 Americans. On the mainland coconuts were cultivated as well as rubber and cocoa; tropical fruits served as the articles of food. Total revenues for 191&-19 and 1921-22 were £55,760 and £91,644. Ex- ports for the same years were £269,666 and £400,197; imports, £271,861 and £468,711.
principal farm crops in 1923 was as follows: corn, 978.000 bushels: oats, 598,000; potatoes, 1,735,000; hay, 494,000 tons; and apples, 191,- 000 bushels. Comparative figures for 1913 are: corn, 814,000 bushels; oats, 420,000, potatoes, 2,074,000; hay, 495,000 tons.
Manufactures. New Hampshire is an im- port industrial State in point of value of products. There were, in 1920, 8 cities of 10,- 000 inhabitants or more, the combined popula- tion of which formed 43.7 per cent of the total for the State; in 1919 they reported 63.3 per cent of the value of the State's manufactured products. There were in the State, in 1909, 1901 manufacturing establishments; in 1914, 1736, and in 1919, 1499. Persons engaged in manufacture numbered 84,191, 85,013, and 90,- 332; while the capital invested amounted to
9130,980,662, $156,748,853, and $320,166,870 in those years. The value of the products, in 1000, was $164,581,010; in 1014, $182,843,863; and in 1010, $407,204,034. The increase in value of products from 1014 to 1010 was in great measure due to changes in industrial con- ditions brought about by the War. The first industry in point of value of products is the manufacture of boots and shoes, amounting to $30,440,000 in 1000; $46,605,000 in 1014, and $02,250,000 in 1010 The second in this re- spect is the manufacture of cotton goods, which had a value of $33,602,000 in 1000; $35,793,- 000 in 1014; and $86,302,000 in 1010. Manu- factures of woolen and worsted goods, in third place, were valued, in 1000, at $16,731,000; 1014, $15,030,000; and 1010, $45,044,000. The paper and wood pulp industry, next in order, had an output valued at $13,904,000 in 1010; $17,708,000 in 1914; and $41,826,000 in 1919 The most important manufacturing cities are Manchester and Nashua. In Manchester there were, in 1909, 175 manufacturing establish- ments, with a product valued at $46,812,000; 1014, 151 with $50,800,000; 1919, 165 with $117,493,000 Nashua had, in 1909, 104 manu- facturing establishments, with a product val- ued at $17,326,000; in 1914, 87 with $22,780,- 000; and in 1919, 92 with $48,985,000. Other important manufacturing cities are Concord, Dover, Keene, Berlin, Laconia, and Portsmouth. Education. The development of its educa
936 KBW HAItWHlM!
Political and Other Events. In the decade
1014-24, New Hampshire remained consistently Republican, with the exception of one year, when the Democrats succeeded in electing their candidate for governor. In 1014 elect ioiiH were held for governor, United States Senator, and Representative in Congress. Rollin H. Spald- ing was reelected Governor, and J. H. Galling- er was reelected to the Senate. The Republi- cans elected two Representatives to Congress. In the elections of 1016 the Republicans elected their candidate for governor, Henry W. Keyes, and carried other State offices, although at a reduced margin In the presidential vot- ing of this year, President Wilson obtained 43,- 871 votes, Charles E Hushes, 43,725. At this election the people voted to call a const i tut ion- al convention. In January, 1916, the United States government purchased, under the Weeks Forestry Land Act, a tract of 5.">,000 acres to be added to the forest reserves of the State. Senator Gallinger died during the primary election campaign of 1918, and the term of Henry F. Hollis, Democrat, expired in 1918. It was "thus necessary to elect two Senators in this year. Gov. Henry W Keyes was elected for the regular term, and George II. Moses was chosen successor to Senator Gallinger. In the State election, John H. Bartlett, Republi- can, was elected governor, together with a Re- publican Legislature. The constitutional con- vention met in June, 1918, but adjourned fol-
tional system has always been one of the chief lowing its organization. It met twice subse-
«.^.~*vA_~_ *t 4-V.A nn^vnlA s*t XTA«T TJamr\aVtii*A A a mipntlv Vint YiMYio rtf tViA aTnanrlmnn t a if aiiVi.
concerns of the people of New Hampshire. As in the case of the other New England States, the decrease in rural population has proved a diffi- cult problem. In 1919 large sections of New Hampshire had become so impoverished and so depopulated that under the existing school laws reasonable elementary education could not possibly be provided for *a very large number of children. Because of this, the Legislature, after a careful study, reorganized the school system and for the first time in the history of the State wrote the school laws into a consistent code, in 1921. The results of this action were immediate. The principles of Americanization, equalization, and supervision were adopted. More specifically, the Board of Education was reorganized, methods of consolidation were pro- vided, and, especially, provision was made for education in sparsely populated districts. The Legislature of 1923 passed several important measures which amplified and revised measures already enacted For one, the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 for the promo- tion of vocational education were accepted, and the State Board of Education was authorized to arrange with institutions, and with the school boards of towns or city districts in the State, to furnish the necessary buildings and equipment for carrying out the provisions of the Federal Act In 1014 the enrollment in the public schools was 63,004; in 1022, 75,683. In the latter year, in the elementary schools, 58,475 were enrolled; in the kindergartens, 1825; and in the high schools, 10,322 The total expenditure for public education in 1023 was $5,718,609. The percentage of illiteracy in the State decreased from 5.5 in 1010 to 5.4 in 1020; among the native white population, from 0.0 to 0.6; among the negro, from 13.8 to 7.7. In the foreign -born population it increased from 15.4 to 10.4. Finance. For finance, see STATE FINANCES.
quently, but none of the amendments it mitted to the people was ratified. Elections were held in 1920 for United States Senator and for governor and other State officers. The Republicans elected their candidate for gov- ernor, Albert O Brown, and reflected Senator Moses to the Senate. In tbe presidential elec- tion of this vear, W. G. Harding received 94,- 947 votes; James M. Cox, 62,562 In 1922 the Democrats succeeded to power in the State and elected their candidate for governor, Fred H. Brown, and a Representative to Congress. They also elected a majority of 10 in the Leg- islature, although the Republicans continued to control the Senate. F. H. Brown was inau- gurated in January, 1923. In his inaugural message he favored a law establishing a 48-hour week for women and children in the manufacturing industries, an amendment of the tax laws, and a tax of $.01 a gallon on gasoline.
Legislation. The most important acts of the Legislature in the decade 1914-24 are noted be- low. The Legislature of 1917 amended the laws relating to the conduct of trials and made provision for the calling of a constitutional convention in June, 1918. The governor was given authority to suspend the labor laws by the request of the Council of National Defense. A "blue sky'* law was enacted, and tbe laws relating to banking and education were amended. The Legislature of 1919 ratified the Federal prohibition amendment on January 16 of that year and tbe woman suffrage amendment on September 9. The Legislature of 1921 regu- lated the practice of chiropractors; provided further safeguards against forest fires; made provisions for the protection of maternity and infancy; and regulated and limited the invest- ments of savings banks. In 1923 the Legis- lature made provision for another constitution- al convention; passed a uniform sales act, lev-
30
NEW HAMPSHIBE UNIVEBSITY
led a gasoline tax, and laid a tax on income from intangibles
NEW HAMPSHIRE, UNIVERSITY or. A coeducational State institution at Durham, N. H., founded as the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts in lSf>0 and incorporated as the University of New Hamp- shire, July 1, 1023 The university more than tripled in size during the decade hot ween 1013-14 and 1923-24, with 300 students en- rolled and 46 members of the faculty in the foimer year as compared with 1123 students and 00 members of the faculty in the latter The libiary was increased from 35,000 to 47,- 800 volumes. Two men's dormitories, a wom- en's dormitory, and a commons building were added to the physical plant. Ralph Dorn lletzel, A.13., LL.15., LL D.. succeeded Edward Thomson Fairchild, A.M., LUD , as president in 1017.
NEW HAVEN. The largest city of Connec- ticut and the fourth largest city of New Eng- land; a manufacturing and educational centre. The population rose from 133,005 in 1010 t